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Breeding of 
Farm Animals 



B, V 

Merritt W; Harper 

Professor of Animal Husbandry 

in the New York State College of Agriculture 

at Cornell University 



NEW YORK 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

LONDON 

Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Limited 
1914 





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Co^ 


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Copyright, 1914, by 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

All Rights Reserved 



Entered at Stationers* Hall 
LONDON. ENGLAND 



Printed in U. S. A. 



m 31 f9l4 

©CI.A387300 



PREFACE 

This book is an attempt at arranging useful informa- 
tion concerning the breeding of farm animals and adapt- 
ing it to the needs of the farmer, breeder and student. It 
includes a brief discussion of the fundamental principles 
underlying animal breeding, such as development, selec- 
tion, variation and heredity, together with the more prac- 
tical phases of the work. 

The book represents experience, both as a breeder and 
instructor. It differs from other books on the breeding 
of animals in that special emphasis is placed on the im- 
portance of proper care and management of the parents, 
together with the proper development of young stock, 
as these are of the utmost importance to the practical 
breeder, and in connection with selection give advance- 
ment. An attempt has been made to direct attention 
away from the speculations that characterized the earlier 
books and to center interest in the more practical fea- 
tures of breeding farm animals. 

To get the essentials involved in animal improvement 
clearly before us, extended use has been made of the 
facts disclosed by the Advanced Register for Holstein- 
Friesian cattle and by Wallace's Year Book for horses, 
as the advancement gained by the methods here em- 
ployed is significant. Because of the nature of the m.a- 
terial it has been found necessary to present a few rather 
long and complicated tables. These should be carefully 
considered by the reader in order that he may learn to 
analyze and generalize of his own accord. This will 
stimulate interest and lead to closer observation of farm 
animals generally. 

To promote interest in correct type and breed char- 
acteristics many photographs of the several classes of 
farm animals have been used. Untouched photographs 

V 



VI PREFACE 

have been employed, as they show type and breed fea- 
tures to advantage. 

Realizing the many difficulties that present themselves 
in the breeding of farm animals, the writer will be glad 
to correspond with those persons into whose hands the 
book may fall concerning such difficulties and also to 
receive suggestions that may make the book more useful 
as a practical guide and text. 



M. W. HARPER. 



Cornell University, 

Ithaca, N. Y., August 3, 1914. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 

Page 

Introduction 1 

Farm animals provide labor, food and clothing — Num- 
ber and value of farm animals — Human population in- 
creasing, number of farm animals decreasing — Farm 
animals costly — Relation of food to production — -Distri- 
bution of farm animals — Improving farm animals — En- 
vironment — Heredity — Selection — Propagation of animals. 

CHAPTER n 

Reproductive Organs and Germ Cells 10 

Female reproductive organs — Male reproductive organs 
— The cell — Cell division — The chromosomes — The germ 
cells — The egg cell — The sperm cells — Chromosome re- 
duction — Fertilization. 

CHAPTER in 

The Determiners of Heredity 21 

Darwin's Pangenesis — Weismann's germ plasm — Op- 
posite views — Approved practice not involved — The 
hereditary bridge — The hereditary material — The enzyme 
theory — The chromosome theory — Chromosome combina- 
tion — Origin of hereditary material — Basis of controlling 
determiners of heredity. 

CHAPTER IV 

Heredity in Animal Breeding 31 

Brewer's fundamental propositions — Complex nature 
of heredity — Offspring in general resemble parents — 
Particular offspring unlike the parent — Some offspring- 
higher and some lower than their parents — Medium off- 
spring the most frequent — The high parent and his off- 
spring — The high offspring and his parents — The law of 
ancestral hereditv — Reversion and atavism — Blended, ex- 
clusive and particulate inheritance. 

vii 



Vlll CONTENTS 

CHAPTER V 

Page 

Mendel^'s Law of Heredity 42 

The law when one pair of characters are involved, 
Monohybrids — Dominants and recessives — The law when 
two pairs of characters are involved, Dihybrids — Three 
Mendelian principles — Creation of new forms — Applica- 
tion of Mendel's Law — Transferring characters — Possi- 
bilities of Mendelism — Mendelism and reversion — Limita- 
tions of Mendelism. 

CHAPTER VI 

Selection in Animal Breeding 56 

Objects of selection — Standard of excellence in selection 
■ — History of the breeds — Breed peculiarities — Vigor, lon- 
gevity and fertility — Large numbers promote uniformity — 
The exceptionable breeding animal — Comparative value of 
sire and dam — Influence of the sire — Suitability for mating. 

CHAPTER YH 
Unit of Selection — Character 65 

Character defined — Germinal, acquired and congenital 
character — Correlated characters — Limit selection to use- 
ful characters — Base selection on limited number of 
characters — Records of performance — Actual breeding 
test valuable — Breeder's fancy points — ^Fashionable breed- 
ing — Pasr" 5 fads. 

CHAPTER Vni 

Basis of Selection — Variation , . . . . 74 

Variation general among farm animals — Variation basis 
of improvement — Nature of variation — Non-inheritable 
variation — Inheritable variation — Variations distinguished 
from the nature of characters involved — ^Quantitative 
variation— Qualitative variation — Functional variation — 
Variations in pattern — Degrees of variations — Continuous 
variations — Discontinuous variations — Mutations — Sports 
— Abnormality — Malformation — Monstrosity — Study of 
variation — Finding the type— Variability or deviation from 
type — Plotting frequency curve. 



CONTENTS IX 



CHAPTER IX 

Page 

Some Causes of Variations 87 

Some external causes of variations — Climate and local- 
ity — Care and management — Food supply — Training and 
developing — Use and disuse — Injuries and mutilations- 
Chemical agents — Breeder's control of the external causes 
of variations — Some internal causes of variation — Matura- 
tion a cause of variation — Fertilization a cause of varia- 
tion — Mendelism a cause of variation — Cross breeding a 
cause of variation — Cell division a cause of variation — 
Relative fertility and longevity. 



CHAPTER X 

Individual Merit and Selection 102 

The breeder a judge — Types of animals — Utility of 
types — Uniformity of type — Breeds of animals — Standard 
of perfection — Value of breed characteristics — Age and 
individual merit — Constitutional vigor. 

CHAPTER XI 
Pedigree and Selection 114 

Form and contents of a pedigree — Tracing and writing 
pedigrees — Comparative value of ancestors — Animal with 
inbred pedigree — Pedigree with exceptional animal — Value 
of family names — Significance of breeder's i ^le — Pro- 
portion of pure-bred animals. 

CHAPTER XII 

Performance and Selection 125 

Standards of performance — Trotting and pacing stand- 
ard — Holstein-Friesian seven-day standard — Holstein- 
Friesian, Jersey and Guernsey yearly standard — Ayrshire 
yearly standard — Brown Swiss yearly standard — The_ ad- 
vanced register record — Value of advanced register 
record in selection — Exact measure of breeding capacity — 
Vigor and performance — Meat, wool and egg production — 
Value of show awafds. 



X CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XIII 
Improvement Due to Selection Based on Performance 

Page 

137 

Characters considered and methods of presentation — 
Developing the trotter — Influence of time records — Breed- 
ing of great sires — Developing the dairy cow — Influence 
of butter-fat records — Breeding cows with advanced reg- 
ister records — Holstein-Friesian cows with records as 
breeders — Breeding of advanced register bulls — Registered 
animals without registered parents. 

CHAPTER XIV 
Improvement Due to Selection the Result of Pre- 
potency 152 

Breed prepotency — Individual prepotency — Prepotency 
among horses — The famous grandsires — Breeders of 
performers and breeders of breeders — Prepotency among 
dairy cattle — Sires of performers and sires of breeders — 
Performers and prepotency— Famous Holstein-Friesian 
cows — Prepotency in sex. 

CHAPTER XV 

Improvement Due to Accumulative Development 166 

Modifying characters — Modified characters in heredity — 
Accumulative development in the trotter — Accumulative de- 
velopment in the dairy cow — Results accomplished — Im- 
provement a slow process — Methods employed. 

CHAPTER XVI 
Systems of Breeding 176 

Purposes in breeding — Pure-bred breeding — Grading — 
Cross-breeding — Line-breeding — Inbreeding — Breeding 
from the best — Co-operative breeding. 

CHAPTER XVII 
Formation of Breeds 185 

Domestication a necessity — Evolution of farm animals 
— Origin of breeds — Robert Bakewell — Bakewell's prin- 
ciples — Influence of Bakewell's methods — Forming of new 
breeds — Origin of the Thoroughbred — Origin of the 
Shorthorn — Origin of the Oxford — Origin of the Hol- 
stein-Friesian — Origin of the Standardbred. 



CONTENTS xi 

CHAPTER XVIII 

Page 

Improvement of Breeds 196 

Origin of pedigrees — Eligibility to registration — Ad- 
vanced register — Breed associations — Live st»ck shows — 
British methods — French methods — Further improvement 
needed — Need of extending improvement. 

CHAPTER XIX 

Building Up a Herd 207 

The inevitability of the dairy cow — The use of pure- 
bred animals — The use of grade animals — Foundation 
animals — The first generation — Breeding the young heif- 
ers — Continued judicious selection the means of improve- 
ment — The Glista family — Advancement requires time — 
Influence of sires. 

CHAPTER XX 

Community Breeding 219 

Business of breeding — Expense of equipment reduced — 
Uniformity of animals favored — Market facilities in- 
creased — Disposal of surplus females — Cow-testing asso- 
ciations — Advanced register testing promoted —Education 
features — The young breeder. 

CHAPTER XXI 

Sex in Breeding 229 

Equality in number of the sexes — Sex determination by 
external factors — Time of breeding — Alternating ova — 
Male and female testicles — Sexual excitement — Age and 
vigor — Food supply — Sex determination by internal fac- 
tors — Sex difference slight — Influence of fertilization — 
Accessory chromosome theory — Sex limited inheritance — 
Sex control not desirable. 

CHAPTER XXII 

Proi^ficacy in Breeding 237 

Conditions that influence prolificacy — High prolificacy 
desirable — Cumulative effect of prolificacy — Prolificacy in 
horses — Prolificacy in cattle — Prolificacy in sheep — Pro- 
lificacy in swine — Prolificacy in poultry — Prolificacy 
hereditary. 



XU CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XXIII 

Page 

Sterility in Breeding 248 

Prevalence of sterility — Causes of sterility — Idleness 
and overfeeding — Overwork and adverse conditions — Ex- 
cessive sexual use — Timidity, irritability and excitability — 
Size of male and female — Hybrid among animals usually 
sterile — Freemartin often sterile — Hermaphrodites — Cryp- 
torchids — Diseases of the reproductive organs — Drugs as 
a remedy for sterility — Dilation of the os uteri — Yeast 
solution in vagina — Management of breeding animals. 

CHAPTER XXIV 
Conception and Development of Fetus 258 

Estrum or heat — Ovulation— Conception — Artificial im- 
pregnation — Formation of the embryo — Development of 
the fetus — Position of fetus — Relative size of fetus — Intra- 
uterine influences— Telegony. 

CHAPTER XXV 
Abortion and Premature Birth 268 

Prevalence of abortion — Kinds of abortion — Accidental 
abortion — Infectious abortion — Avenue of infection — Con- 
trol of infectious abortion — Avoid using infected bulls — ■ 
Isolate infected covers — Use disinfectants freely — Age im- 
munity in contagious abortion. 

CHAPTER XXVI 
Pregnancy and Gestation 277 

Signs of pregnancy — Duration of gestation — The mare — 
The cow — The ewe — The sow — Other animals — Poultry — 
Number of young at birth — Poultry — Care of pregnant 
animals — Signs of parturition — Preparation for parturi- 
tion — Normal parturition. 

CHAPTER XXVII 

Ailments of the Dam 288 

Difficult parturition — Wrong presentations — Eversion of 
uterus — Retained afterbirth — Inflammation of the vagina 
and uterus — Milk fever — Garget — Cowpox — Mammitis — 
Altered milk secretions. 



CONTENTS Xlll 

CHAPTER XXVIII 

Page 

Ailments of New-Born 298 

Asphyxia — Constipation — Navel infection — Diarrhea — 
Infectious diarrhea — Sore mouth — Sore eyes — Chilled 
lamb — Thumps — Umbilic hernia — Scrotal hernia — Castra- 
tion of males. 

CHAPTER XXIX 

Development of Young Animals 306 

Condition of parents — Feeding while young — Relative 
development — Developing the young horse — Developing 
the heifer — Developing meat-producing animals — Environ- 
ment, development, selection and efficiency. 

Appendix 315 

Table showing types and breeds of farm animals — 
Table showing period of gestation. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Page 

The Shorthorn bull "Avondale" Frontispiece 

Diagram showing principles involved in animal breeding 6 

Reproductive organs of the mare 11 

Diagram of a typical cell 13 

Diagram illustrating cell division or mitosis 14 

Diagram of the germ cells 17 

Diagram illustrating maturation in the egg cell 18 

Diagram showing maturation in both germ cells 19 

Diagram illustrating Weismann's theory of descent 24 

Shorthorn bull "Shenstone Albino" 26 

Shorthorn cow "Maxwalton Missie" 29 

Guernsey bull "Hayes Cherub 2d" 34 

Guernsey cow "Dolly Dimple" 36 

Cheviot sheep of good type 39 

Black and white guinea pigs showing Mendelian phenomena 43 

Diagram illustrating Mendelian dominants and recessives 45 

Guinea pigs illustrating Mendelian phenomena 47 

Percheron mares of excellent type 57 

Shropshire sheep uniform in type 60 

Brown Swiss herd true to type 61 

Poland China sow of good type 64 

Shire stallion "Lockinge Hingist" 67 

Dutch Belted herd of excellent type and characteristic markings 63 

Hampshire sow with characteristic markings 70 

Hereford cattle with characteristic markings 72 

Variation among light horses 75 

Variation among heavy horses 78 

Rambouillet ram "Ohio Boy." Fine wool type 81 

Rambouillet ewe. Fine wool type S3 

Plotting a frequency curve 86 

Shropshire ewe. Medium wool, mutton type 88 

Belgian mare "Bella" 91 

Catalonian jack ==^^_^^ 99 

XV 



XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Span of execellent mules 100 

Zebu cattle, native of Trinidad 101 

Percheron stallion "Idlefonse" 103 

Thoroughbred mare "Blue Girl" 104 

Hereford bull "Point Comfort 14th" 107 

Jersey cow "Bosman's Anna" xl 112 

Poland China boar 116 

Aberdeen Angus bull "Leroy of Meadowbrook" 117 

Aberdeen Angus cow "Glencarnock Isla" 119 

Dorset-Horned ram 121 

Duroc Jersey boar 123 

Standardbred stallion "Kremlin," 2.07^ 126 

Berkshire sow 128 

Dutch Beltqd bull "Auten" 129 

Dutch Belted cow "Jennie" 134 

Holstein-Friesian cow "Glista Omicron" 142 

Holstein-Friesian cow "Glista Eglantine" 145 

Holstein-Friesian cows with high records of performances 149 

Standardbred stallion "McKinrjey," 2.11^ 155 

Polled Durham bull "The Confessor" 160 

Polled Durham bull "Sultan's Creed" 163 

Suffolk stallion "Westside Chieftain" 167 

Holstein-Friesian cow "Gl. Omicron" and daughter,"Gl. Eglantine" 170 

High egg-producing hens _ 172 

High wool-yielding ewe 174 

Brown Swiss bull "Myone Boy" 178 

Brown Swiss cow "Arlena" 181 

Cotswold ram. Long wool type 186 

Robert Bakewell 188 

A prize-winning flock of Oxford sheep 193 

Hereford heifer "Scottish Lassie" 198 

Beef cattle parade on show grounds 200 

Cheshire hog of excellent type 203 

"Glista Ernestine" and her ancestors 212 

"Glista Cora" and her ancestors 215 

High-producing Holstein-Friesian cows 216 

Southdown ewe lambs, uniform in conformation 220 

Brown Swiss yearling heifers of uniform type 223 

Ayrshire cows uniform in type and color 225 

Berkshire swine true to type „^=, 227 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XVU 

Page 

Jersey bull "Raleigh's Fairy Boy" 230 

Jersey cow "Jacoba Irene" 233 

Galloway bull, a prize winner 23'4 

Galloway heifers true to type 236 

Cheshire barrow of excellent type 239 

Hampshire barrow, showing breed marking 241 

Dorset Horned lambs 243 

Southdown yearling ram 245 

Red Polled bull "Teddy's Best" 249 

Red Polled cow "Cosy 2d' 251 

Berkshire sows at pasture 255 

Poland China boar of good conformation 257 

Ayrshire bull "Bargenoch Gay Cavalier" 259 

Ayrshire cow "Kilnford Bell 3d" 263 

Hampshire sow 265 

Aberdeen Angus true to type 269 

Large Yorkshire boar 270 

Tamworth sow "Oakhill Fancy" 1 271 

Percheron stallion "Imprecation" 279 

Berkshire boar "Handsome Lee" 283 

Normal presentation of young at parturition 286 

Large Yorkshire sows 289 

Belgian stallion "Polo Nord" 292 

Group of Swiss Toggenburg does 295 

Chester White boar 299 

Hampshire ram 303 

Duroc Jersey boar 304 

Clydesdale stallion 307 

Poland China barrows, grand champion pen 308 

Percheron colt "Merlin" 310 

Hampshire sow 313 



CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTION 

The breeding of animals and plants is receiving much 
attention from the practical as well as the scientific man. 
This activity is due to a realization of the economic 
importance of plants and animals on the part of our 
foremost men of affairs. The well being, indeed the very- 
existence, of man rests ultimately upon his ability to 
produce cultivated plants and domesticated animals in 
abundance. Possibly never before has any question at- 
tracted an interest so universal as that of the reproduc- 
tion of plants and animals, including man. 

While man makes economic use of many species of 
animals, this discussion is limited to that of breeding 
farm animals, including horses, cattle, sheep, swine and 
poultry, although other species occasionally may be 
used as illustrations and examples. 

Farm animals provide labor, food and clothing. — Few 
realize the extent of our dependence upon farm animals. 
The horse has fought our wars and won our battles and 
is our principal beast of burden. In connection with 
improved machinery, he has increased man's productive 
power many fold. It is estimated that the horses of 
the United States are equal in productive industry to 
that of 100,000,000 laborers. In America, it is the horse 
that enables us to make farming an attractive business, 
rather than a peasant's drudgery, as in many of the older 
nations of the world. 

In the United States, approximately one-half of the 
amount spent for food by the average family goes for the 
purchase of meat, eggs and dairy products. Our stand- 
ard foods are bread and potatoes, meat, milk and eggs, 
1hree of which are provided directly by farm animals, 



2 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

while the other two are largely dependent upon the 
horse or ox to furnish the labor necessary for their prop- 
agation and cultivation. 

The wool of the sheep and the fiber of the cotton and 
flax furnish the materials out "of which we clothe our- 
selves. Again, the first of these materials is a direct by- 
product of the body of one class of farm animals, and the 
cultivation of the others is accomplished very largely by 
means of horse labor. 

Number and value of farm animals. — We possess a 
greater number of farm animals than any other single 
country in the world, although some nations, including 
their dependencies, excel us in some classes, particularly 
the British Empire in the case of sheep. Of all of the 
farm animals in the world approximately one-fifth of the 
horses, one-half of the mules, one-sixth of the cattle, one- 
twelfth of the sheep and two-fifths of the swine are to be 
found in the United States. This represents a vast 



Number and Value of Farm Animals 





Census 


1900 


Census 


1910 


Class 


Total 
number 


Average* 

value per 

head 


Total 
number 


Average 

value per 

head 


Human population 

Horses, mules and asses 

Cattle, dairy 

Cattle, other than dairy. . . . 

Swine 

Sheep 

Poultry 


75,994,575 

24,752,436 
18,108,666 
51,227,166 
64,686,155 
61,735,014 
250,624,038 


$50.80 

29.68 

21.78 

3.69 

2.77 

0.34 


91,972,266 

27,618,242 
21,795,770 
41,886,878 
59,473,636 
52,838,748 
295,880,190 


$111.72 

34.56 

24.50 

6.88 

4.44 

0.52 


Total value of farm animals 


$3,03S,005,586t 


$5,451,084,839t 


Total value of farm crops . . 


2,998,704,412 


5,487,161,223 



*Farm value, tlncludes goats. 



INTRODUCTION 3 

amount of wealth, as is illustrated in the foregoing tabula- 
tion, which gives the total population for the United 
States, both human and animal, and the average value 
per head for the several classes of farm animals as given 
in the twelfth and thirteen censuses. 

Human population increasing, number of farm animals 
decreasing.— While the average value per head of all 
farm animals has increased immensely during the past 
decade, the number has materially decreased. This is 
significant, especially when compared with the increase 
in human population. Exclusive of poultry, the twelfth 
census shows that in 1900 there were almost three head 
of farm live stock for each human inhabitant, whereas 
the thirteenth census shows that in 1910 there were ap- 
proximately two head of stock for each inhabitant. The 
year book of the department of agriculture gives further 
reduction in the number of animals on farms, particularly 
cattle. It is important to note this decrease has taken 
place in the meat-producing animals — cattle other than 
dairy, sheep and swine. Horses, dairy cattle and poul- 
try show increase about in proportion to that of the 
human population. We may well inquire why this is 
true and its general significance. 

Farm animals costly. — Few persons realize the expense 
of maintaining farm animals. We need but to reflect a 
moment and the enormity will become apparent to us. 
Practically every farmstead throughout this broad land 
is devoting much of its energies to animal production. 
Farm animals not only consume vast quantities of expen- 
sive food, but require labor in caring for their needs as 
well as shelter for themselves and their food. Further, 
the loss from death among our extensive animal popula- 
tion is great, running into many millions of dollars in 
the case of swine alone. 

An idea of the cost of farm animals may be gained from 
the following tabulation, which gives the food of main- 
tenance and production for the several classes of farm 



4 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



animals, as well as the approximate daily product and 
total annual cost for each class : 

Food of Maintenance and Production 





Mainte 

Daily food 
lbs. 


lance 


Production 


Animal 
weight 


Annual 
cost* 


Daily food 
lbs. 


Daily product 


Annual 
cost* 


Horse 
1,250 


4 grain 
18 hay 


$47.45 


15 grain 
20 hay 


Moderate 
work 


$91.25 


Cattle 
1,250 


25 hay 


45.60 


30 silage 
12 hay 

8 grain 


25 lbs. milk 

or 
2 lbs. beef 


73.00 


Sheep 
120 


3 hay 


5.50 


1.5 grain 
2.0 hay 


0.4 lb. mutton 


9.15 


Swine 

100 to 200 


1 grain 
to 

2 grain 


3.65 

to 

7.30 


4 grain 

to 
6 grain 


0.751b. pork 

to 
1.50 lbs. pork 


14.60 

to 

21.90 


18 fowls 
100 lbs. 


3 grain 


10.95 


5 grain 


8 eggs, 1 lb. 

or 
.75 lb. meat 


18.25 



*Because of the fluctuating price of feed, the cost is estimated with grain at $20 
a ton and hay at $10 a ton. These prices afford a convenient basis, as they are easy 
to add to or take from, according to local conditions. 



Relation of food to production. — There are approx- 
imately three pounds of edible dry matter in the 25 
pounds of milk ; seven-tenths of a pound in the two 
pounds of beef; one-eighth of a pound in the .4 pound 
of mutton ; an average of two-fifths of a pound in the 
pork ; one-fourth of a pound in the .75 pound of fowl 
meat ; and approximately one-fourth of a pound of 
edible dry matter in the eight eggs. 

According to this computation, the following amounts 
of dry matter in the food will be required by the several 
classes of farm animals, to produce one pound of edible 
dry matter in the product. Because of the variation 
among the individuals of the several classes, this calcula- 
tion is supplemented by data from Jordan's "Feeding 



INTRODUCTION 5 

Animals," which includes the digestible organic sub- 
stance required to produce one pound increase in edible 
solids.* 

Relation of Food to Production 





Dairy 
cattle, 


Swine. 


Fowls 


Sheep, 


Beef 

cattle, 




milk 


pork 


eggs 


meat 


mutton 


beef 


Dry matter in the 
food required to 
produce one pound 
of edible dry matter 
in the product 


5 lbs. 


8 lbs. 


14 lb?. 


15 lbs. 


17 lbs. 


23 lbs. 


Digestible organic 
substance producing 
one pound increase 
edible solids 


5.5 lbs. 


6.4 lbs. 


19.6 lbs. 


23.4 lbs. 


37.9 lbs. 


36.3 lbs. 



Since a pound of product in the shape of beef and 
mutton costs three to four times as much as in milk and 
pork, it is little wonder that beef cattle and sheep are 
decreasing. It is evident that, with the increasing human 
population, the time will come when it will be difficult, 
if not impossible to support as many animals as we do at 
the present. True, some classes of animals, particularly 
fowls and swine, can be kept, in part, upon refuse,, but 
an immense acreage of corn, oats and hay is necessary 
to maintain our farm animals. Before long much of this 
land will be required to support our increasing popula- 
tion in a more economic manner than we have hitherto 
been able to produce beef and mutton. 

Distribution of farm animals. — The high food cost of 
beef and mutton does not mean that such meat cannot 
be produced at a profit. There are certain regions in 
which both products make a liberal return on the invest- 
'^lent, particularly when we consider the wool, the hide 
and like by-products. As would be expected, because 

*W. H. Jordan's "The FeedinK of Animals," p. 404. 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



of the density of the population, we find poultry and 
dairy cattle most numerous in the Middle Atlantic and 
North Central states where food is high in price. Fifty 
per cent of the dairy cattle in the Union are in the North 
Central states. In like manner we find the meat-produc- 
ing animals, particularly cattle and sheep, very numerous 
in regions that are sparsely populated and where food is 
cheap, although large numbers of meat animals, particu- 
larly swine, are to be found in the Central states. This 
is because of the abundance of meat-producing foods. 
Thus 45 per cent of our beef cattle are in the South Cen- 
tral states, 42 per cent of the sheep in the Mountain states 
and 60 per cent of the swine in the North Central states, 
while 54 per cent of the mules are in the South Central 
states. 

Improving farm animals. — Since our animals are very 
costly, indeed so expensive that they are decreasing in 
number, it would seem well worth our time to give serious 
attention to methods of increasing their efhciency. While 
there are many factors entering into the improvement of 

farm animals, many of 
which are little under- 
stood, yet the experi- 
ence of successful breed- 
ers gives us abundance 
of evidence to suppose 
that environment, se- 
lection and heredity are 
by far the most impor- 
tant means by which 
farm animals are im- 
proved, as they control 
development, give ef- 
ficiency and purify the 
blood. (Fig. 2.) 

Fig. 2 — Diagram Showing Relationship of linvironment. i nlS 

THE Principles Involved in Animal Im- fgrm is UScd tO denote 




INTRODUCTION 7 

the conditions of life as a whole, both good and bad, into 
which the animal comes and by which it may be eithei ad- 
vanced or retarded, but with which it must live and compete. 
The environment consists largely of food, shelter and care, 
including training and developing. To obtain greatest 
advancement the animal must be well fed at all times, 
but more especially while young, since the individual re- 
tarded at this age will never reach that degree of perfec- 
tion which it otherwise would had it been properly 
nourished during the days in which growth was possible. 

The shelter required for advancement necessarily varies 
much with the several classes of farm animals and with 
the climate, but should be sufficient to keep the animal in 
comfort. Exposure to very hot sun, as well as to cold 
rains and storms, is especially harmful to all classes of 
farm animals. The care should be such as to encourage 
greatest development at all times. Many persons fail 
in breeding animals by depending on heredity alone to 
maintain and improve their stock. 

While greatest advancement cannot be obtained with- 
out suitable food and care, training and development are 
even more important. There seems to be a tendency 
on the part of some breeders to overlook this fact. It 
must be remembered, however, no matter how suitable 
the conditions, indeed no matter how pure the heritage, 
maximum usefulness in many economic attributes or fea- 
tures of farm animals cannot be attained without proper 
training and development. This fact is well illustrated in 
the case of Standardbred horses and dairy cows, the 
only two classes of farm animals in which we have ac- 
curate records of performance. We know exactly what 
these animals can do and know definitely when progress 
has been made. Further, we know positively that maxi- 
mum efficiency depends upon proper training and de- 
velopment, as such is necessary to bring out all of the pos- 
sibilities of the individual. 

Heredity. — This term is commonly defined as the tend- 



5 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

ency of the offspring to resemble the parent. In the 
main, therefore, the individuality of the offspring is sim- 
ilar to that of the parent. Thus in common usage we 
have the expression "like begets like," although in an 
exact sense no animal is like either parent. The idea 
of heredity signifies the transmission of the determiners 
of individuality from parent to offspring. Walter briefly 
defines environment as what the animal has, training as 
what he does, and heredity as what he is, thus denoting 
purity of blood. Further, he says that while what an 
animal has and does are of great importance, especially to 
the individual, yet what he is, is of far more importance in 
the long run.* This is probably true, but we will never 
know exactly what an animal is; that is, what his capabil- 
ities are, unless the environment and the training have 
been such as to develop all of the potentialities with 
which the individual is endowed. Of course, it is recog- 
nized that the animal must be capable of development, 
or the effect of suitable environment and proper train- 
ing will come to naught. 

Selection. — Heredity does not distinguish between the 
good and the bad, and so far as it is concerned the off- 
spring may obtain either or both from the parent. Here 
is where selection plays a very significant part in the 
improvement of our farm animals. The successful 
breeder selects and propagates animals with desirable 
attributes, features or characters, by which is meant 
detail of form or function, and eliminates those individ- 
uals that fail to come up to expectation. 

As suggested, not all animals are endowed with the 
same capabilities for development, even under suitable 
environment, as some individuals make remarkable ad- 
vancement, while other individuals fail to equal their 
predecessors. Here, again, selection proves the key to 
efficiency, for all animals that fail to develop up to the 
standard are disregarded, and only those that come up 
to expectation are retained for breeding purposes. Thus 

*H. E. Walter, "Genetics," p. 3. 



INTRODUCTION 9 

the average efficiency of the animals retained is su- 
perior to the averag"e of those born into the herds. Since 
the degree of selection employed in practice is the con- 
trolling factor in the efficiency of our living farm animals, 
it would seem well worth while to give careful considera- 
tion to the methods whereby selection can be used more 
effectively. 

Propagation of animals. — So important are environ- 
ment, selection and heredity in the development of our 
farm animals that the influence of many factors operat- 
ing to decrease the number of normal births, as well as 
proper development while young, are often overlooked. 
These very factors often are of greatest concern to the 
practical breeder. The dairy farmer with a herd of 40 
cows is more concerned in having his cows freshen regu- 
larly and normally than in the individuality of the off- 
spring. The same is true in breeding horses, beef cattle, 
sheep and swine, with added interest in methods whereby 
the many fatal diseases of the young may be avoided and 
proper development secured. The proper growth of the 
new individual, both before and after birth, is beset by 
many difficulties. The number of animals that fail to 
breed as well as those that give birth to premature young 
is great. This is a source of immense financial loss in 
dairy cattle and all pure-bred animals. Further, it has 
been stated that approximately one-fourth of all the 
young animals born die before they are one month of age. 
Surely it is well worth our time to consider methods 
whereby this great loss may be avoided. 



CHAPTER II 
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND GERM CELLS 

In sexual reproduction the formation of the new in- 
dividual is the result of a union of material contributed 
by each parent — male and female. A general knowledge 
of the location and construction of the organs that fur- 
nish this material, and in which the young originate and 
develop, is necessary to an understanding of the condi- 
tions which have to do with bearing normal young. 
Further, a knowledge of the material itself is of the very 
utmost importance, since it is the only part passing from 
the parents to the new individual, and must, therefore, 
contain the determiners of heredity. 

Female reproductive organs. — The generative organs 
of the female consist of the vulva, vagina, os uteri or 
neck of womb, uterus or womb, Fallopian tubes or ovi- 
ducts, and the ovaries, as well as of the milk glands and 
udder. The vulva is the external opening of the female 
reproductive organs. The vagina is the passage from 
the vulva to the uterus. In the mare it is 8 to 12 inches 
in length and capable of lateral distention to the full size 
of the pelvic cavity. The os uteri or neck of the womb 
projects into the forward end of the vagina as much as 
2 or 3 inches in the case of the mare. Because of the 
nature of its walls this neck is ordinarily closed except 
when the animal is in estrum or breeding condition and 
during parturition. It is very important that the open- 
ing to this organ should dilate at the time of breeding, 
as through it the material from the male must pass in 
order to reach the uterus or womb. The uterus lies in 
front of the vagina. In the unbred mare it is oblong, 
varying from 5 to 8 inches in length and from lyi to 2^ 
inches in width. (Fig. 3.) 

10 



REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND GERM CELLS 



II 



The ovaries are the essential female reproductive 
organs in that they produce the female reproductive 
bodies commonly called ova or egg cells. The detail of 
ova formation is known as oogenesis. The ovaries are 








Fig. 3 — Reproductive Organs of the Mare 

1. Left ovary. 2. Fallopian tube or oviduct. 3. Right horn of uterus. 4. Left 
horn of uterus. 5. Body of uterus or womb. 5". Neck of uterus. 6. Vagina. 7. 
Vulva. 8. Broad ligament. 9. Left kidney. 10. Urinary bladder. 11. Floor of 
pelvis. 12. Abdominal wall. 13. Roof of pelvis (after Leisering's "Atlas of the 
Anatomy of Domesticated Animals"). 

two in number, one being situated on the right side of 
the body and one on the left. They are connected with 
the uterus by the Fallopian tubes or oviducts. The 
ovaries vary greatly in size and form according to age 
and individuality. The ovary of the young mare, which 
is the largest among farm animals, is usually 3^ to 4 
inches in its greatest diameter, and weighs about four 
ounces, while in the aged mare it may shrink to i^ 
inches in its greatest diameter and its weight to one-half 
ounce. The normal ovary of the cow is much smaller, 
being about Yz inch in its greatest diameter and weigh- 
ing less than one-half ounce. 

The udder and milk glands are essential organs of I'c- 



12 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

production. They constitute a necessary source of 
nutritive supply to the new-born animal. Under 
domestication, the activity of the milk glands has been 
highly developed, particularly in the cow and goat, as 
they provide an important food supply for man. The 
number of glands vary according to the class of animals, 
thus the mare has two, the cow four, the ewe two, the 
sow 8 to 12, and the cat and bitch 8 to lo each. 

The milk glands consist of a cluster of cells about a 
duct, much as grapes cluster about the stem. These 
ducts unite and form larger canals which empty into 
one, two, or more milk cisterns, from which the milk is 
drawn through the teat by the sucking of the young or 
by various milking processes. The milk is secreted in 
the epithelial milk cells, and while, no doubt, some passes 
into the cisterns, yet the major part is stored in the 
milk cells. Under the excitation of milking or sucking 
the milk flows freely into the cisterns and teats, and 
thence is readily extracted. 

Male reproductive organs. — In reproduction the male 
reproductive organs are, of course, equally as important 
as the female organs. For present purposes, however, 
it is sufficient to know that the testicles of the male are 
analagous to the ovaries of the female, and that they 
produce the male reproductive bodies called spermatozoa 
or sperm cells. The details of spermatozoa formation is 
known as spermatogenesis. When discharged from the 
body the sperm cells are contained in a white fluid which 
is alkaline in reaction. This material is commonly 
called the semen or seminal fluid. 

It is noteworthy that both spermatozoa and ova are 
products of metamorphoses taking place in the epithelial 
structures, the former being derived from the spermato- 
genic cells found in the seminiferous tubules of the tes- 
ticles, while the latter come from the. germinal epithe- 
lium of the ovaries. 

The cell. — All organisms, both animal and plant, are 



REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND GERM CELLS 1 3 

made up of cellular units, much as a brick is the unit of 
a wall. By a consideration of these units we can gain 
a clearer idea of the part the sperm — and egg — cells 
play in heredity as well as in forming the new in- 
dividual. The size of animal cells varies to a consider- 
able degree, although, with certain minor exceptions, the 
sperm cells are the smallest elements, while the egg cells 
are the largest. The form of the cell is likewise exceed- 
ingly variable. Free living cells, where the form is not 
determined by the environment, are usually spherical 
or oval, as the egg cells show; while those united into 
tissue may be pressed together into any shape and with 
many projections. 

A typical cell is represented diagrammatically in Fig. 
4. Near the center of the cell the nucleus is shown 

Ce// JV^// 

Cyt oh/asm 

— C<z,ntro3oi7J<z 

''hroiTi^tJn 72<ztv\^orA 

Fig. 4 — Diagram of a Typical Cell* 

enveloped in the nuclear membrane. Because of the 
behavior of the nuclear contents during cell division it 
is considered of unusual significance. To add clearness 
to the cell contents, when under examination, the scien- 
tist stains it with a chemical preparation. When this is 
done the nuclear material takes on a deeper and more 
striking color than the other parts of the cell, indicating 
a peculiar composition. For this reason the nuclear sub- 

*Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 are made up from "The Cell," by permission of the 
author, E. B. Wilson, and the publisher, The Macmillan Co. 




H 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



stance is called chromatin. Surrounding the nucleus is 
the cytoplasm, in which is located the centrosome. The 
nucleus and the cytoplasm are made up of living sub- 
stance called protoplasm. Surrounding the whole there 
is usually a wall which serves to separate one cell from 
another. 

Cell division. — Body growth consists of an increase in 
the number of cells, and not of an increase in their size. 
Large animals do not have larger cells than small 

animals, but they 
have more of them. 
The ordinary proc- 
ess of cell division 
is termed mitosis, 
and in animals is 
made possible by 
the material carried 
to the growing part 
by the blood. It oc- 
^^ curs constantly dur- 
ing growth. The 
process of simple cell 
division is shown 
diagrammatically in 
Fig. 5- 

As division is 
about to take place 
the chromatin ap- 
pears as a fine net- 
work running 
through the mass 
of the nucleus, 
. _, ,. „ o /- c , . u ,■ not unlike beads 

A. The resting cell. B C. Early stages, chromaln 

collecting into ribbons. D. Chromatin segmenting, strUng U p O n a 

forming chromosomes. E. Chromosomes arranged , ? ,-p,, . , 

end to end along the equatorial pla.ie. F. Chromo- thread, i nlS nctWOrk 
somes splitting lengthwise. G. Chromosomes emigrat- 11 1 

ing to asters to form the new nucleus. H I. Cell wall USUaily COnuenSCS 

becoming constricted to form new cells. J. New cells :„j-^ „ tlTi-<3Qr! /->r n'K 

entering into resting stage. lUlU d. UU CdU Ui liu- 




-DiAGRAM Illustrating Cell Division 
OR Mitosis 



REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND GERM CELLS 1 5 

bon and then breaks up transversely into a definite number 
of segments, known as chromosomes. In the meantime the 
centrosome has divided, and the tv\^o new bodies thus 
formed have migrated to opposite sides of the 
nucleus, each surrounded by its radiating lines, known 
as asters. 

The chromosomes arrange themselves end to end 
along the equatorial plane of the spindle, at right angles 
to its axis, and each chromosome splits lengthwise, one 
group migrating to each aster, forming a new nucleus. 
The cell wall becomes constructed, dividing the cyto- 
plasm between the two new cells, and the resting stage 
ensues during which preparation is made for another 
division. 

The chromosomes. — In the process of cell division 
which attends all growth there are three significant facts 
established concerning the behavior of the chromosomes, 
which are to play a very important part in our study 
of hereditary materials. First, the number of 
chromosomes is constant for all individuals of the same 
species. In farm animals the number is i6. Second, 
in all forms arising by sexual reproduction the number 
is thought to be even ; and, third, cell division consists 
essentially in a splitting of the chromosomes in 
such a manner that each daughter cell secures 
an exact equivalent of what is received by the other 
daughter cell of the same division. Cell division is, 
therefore, an exceedingly orderly procedure, whereby 
each daughter cell not only receives its share of the 
mass, but receives exactly the same number and kind of 
chromosomes as that of the other cell of the same 
division. 

THE GERM CELLS 

Not only is the individual composed of cells, but these 
cells are highly dififerentiated according to the function 



l6 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

they perform. In the study of heredity we recognize 
two distinct groups of cells — first, the sexual or germ 
cells of which the reproductive bodies and the organs 
producing them, both male and female, are composed; 
and, second, the somatic or body cells, of which the re- 
mainder of the body structure is composed. The former 
are capable of indefinite existence in a suitable medium, 
whereas the latter are destined to die and disintegrate 
with the body. 

Castle and others have shown that the germ cells are 
distinct from the body cells, although dependent upon 
them for nutrition and growth. Castle removed the 
ovaries from a white guinea pig just attaining sexual 
maturity, and inserted into her body ovaries from a 
black guinea pig not yet sexually mature. This grafted 
animal was mated with a white mafe. Now, numerous 
experiments have shown that white guinea pigs mated 
with white, without exception, produce only white young. 
In the course of a year, however, this grafted white 
animal, mated successively with a white male, gave 
birth to three litters of young which together consisted 
of six individuals, all black.* 

The egg cell. — Among farm animals the ovum of the 
female is remarkable for its enormous size when com- 
pared with the spermatozoon of the male or with body 
cells generally. This is especially true in the case of 
poultry. In structure the ovum presents the parts of a 
typical cell containing a large nucleus, in this case called 
the "germinal vesicle," with its chromatin network. The 
ovum is distended with stored nutrients to which its 
large size is due and upon which the young embryo sub- 
sists for a time. The egg cells are discharged, either 
singly, as in the case of the mare and cow; or in twos 
and threes, as is frequently observed in sheep and goats ; 
or in varying numbers, as in swine and carnivora. 

The sperm cells. — The spermatozoa of the male present 
a striking contrast to the ova of the female. The former 

*W. E, Castle, "Heredity," p. 31, 



REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND GERM CELLS 



17 



is very minute, many thousand times less than the bulk 
of the latter. The sperm cell resembles a minute, elon- 
gated tadpole, swimming very actively about by the 
vibrations of a long slender tail. This locomotion is 




Fig. 6 — Diagram of the Germ Cells 

1. Egg cell. 2. Sperm cell size to compare with egg cell. 3. Sperm cell enlarged 
to show parts. A. Apical body. B. Nucleus. C. End knob. D. Middle piece. E. 
Envelope of tail. F. Tail piece. G. End piece. L. Nucleolus or germinal spot. M. 
Nucleus or germinal vesicle containing network of chromatin. N. Cytoplasm. 

necessary to bring the two germ cells together, as the egg 
cell is practically stationary because of its great bulk. 
In structure the sperm cell contains all the parts of a 
typical cell, but arranged in a different form and con- 
taining very little cytoplasm. The nucleus is the im- 
portant part. The nuclear network is much more dense 
than in the egg cell. While the egg cells are discharged 
singly or in comparatively small numbers, the sperm 
cells are discharged from the testicles of the male in 
practically countless numbers, although but one is used 
in the act of fertilization. This is due in part at least to 
the distance the sperm cells must travel as well as to the 
difficulty in reaching the egg cell. 

Spermatozoa possess remarkable vitality, remaining 
active in the genital passages of the female for days and 



15 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

in some cases possibly for weeks. When mounted and 
protected from evaporation, they have been known to 
show vibratile motion after the lapse of nine days. Weak 
alkaline solution renders them more active, while acids, 
even very dilute, destroy them. 

Chromosome reduction. — Since the number of chromo- 
somes in a given class of animals is constant, and since 
fertilization requires the union of a sperm cell from the 
male with an egg cell from the female, each containing 
i6 chromosomes, is it necessary that the number be re- 
duced in the germ cells before fertilization, in order to 





Fig. 7 — Diagram Illustrating Maturation in the Egg Cell 

A. Initial phase. B. Formation of first polar body. C. Preparation for second 
division. D. Final results, three polar bodies and the egg after maturation. 



REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND GERM CELLS 



19 



prevent a doubling up in the new individual. This 
chromosome reduction takes place during cell division, 
and is termed maturation (Fig 7). In the egg cell the 
process is known as oogenesis and in the sperm cell as 
spermatogenesis. The mature Qgg — or sperm — cell, with 
half its normal number of chromosomes is termed a 
gamete, while the fertilized egg which is formed by the 
union of two gametes — male and female — is called a 
cygote, or yoked cell. 

In the male this reduction process is continuous, and 
mature sperm cells are stored in considerable numbers. 
In the female, however, the reduction takes place very 
rapidly and just prior to uniting with a mature sperm cell. 
In fact, in some instances, it is known to have occurred 
after the sperm cell has passed through the wall of the 
ovum. A diagrammatic 
representation of the 
process of maturation 
is shown in Fig. 8. 

The number of chro- 
mosomes (not shown 
in diagram) undergoes 
division, and thus re- 
mains constant in num- 
ber in each germ cell 
until the maturation 
division, or immedi- 
ately before the forma- 
tion of the mature 
sperm and egg cell, 
when they separate 
into two groups with- 
out splitting, each 

group going into a different cell. In this way 
the chromosomes are reduced to one-half the normal 
number. It is noteworthy in the case of the female that 
the mass of food is retained in the mature egg cell and 




Fig. 8 — Diagram Showing the Essential Facts 
IN THE Maturation of the Germ Cells 

1. Sperm cell. 2. Egg cell. 3. Fertilized egg. 
A. Primordial division period. B. Growth 
period. C. Maturation period. 



20 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

the other three cells perish, whereas in the male the four 
mature sperm cells are similar in appearance and each 
have the same possibilities. 

Fertilization. — The mature sperm cell or male gamete, 
by virtue of its power of locomotion, finds its way to 
the mature egg cell or female gamete, their chromosomes 
flocculate, thus restoring the normal number and com- 
pleting the zygote, in this case the embryo of the new 
animal. 

During the act of copulation the semen of the male 
is discharged into the vagina of the female, a part of the 
fluid passing through the dilated os uteri or neck of the 
womb. The spermatozoa work forward through the 
uterus into the Fallopian tubes or oviducts. Here they 
meet and surround the ovum from the ovary. Though 
many sperm cells may attach themselves to the exterior 
of the egg cell, but one penetrates to the interior. Which 
one enters is simply a matter of chance. This union of 
male and female reproductive bodies constitutes fertiliza- 
tion. The fertilized ovum now migrates back into the 
uterus, where with favorable conditions growth and 
development ensue. 



CHAPTER III 
THE DETERMINERS OF HEREDITY 

The resemblance between the new individual and the 
parent is not due to a direct transfer of the characters in 
question, but to some kind of "determiner" of heredity. 
Thus blood relatives do not inherit characters in the 
manner that real estate or personal property passes from 
one generation to another. 

There have been many theories advanced attempting 
to explain the phenomena of heredity, two of which are 
of special interest since they serve as the basic principle 
governing animal breeding. It is only fair to v/arn the 
reader that these theories are conflicting, and that the 
principle involved has been the most discussed question 
in modern times. The first of these theories advanced 
was that by Charles Darwin, and known as Darwin's 
pangenesis. The second was that by August Weismann 
and known as Weismann's germ plasm. 

Darwin's pangenesis. — Although not the first to at- 
tempt a theoretical explanation of the phenomena of 
heredity, Darwin set forth a provisional hypothesis which 
seemed so probable a speculation that it attracted world- 
wide comment. In view of the importance formerly at- 
tached to this theory of heredity, the hypothesis is given 
as stated by Darwin : 

'Tt is universally admitted that the cells or units of the 
body increase by self-division or proliferation, retaining 
the same nature, and that they ultimately become con- 
verted into the various tissues and substances of the 
body. But besides this means of increase, I assume that 
the units throw off minute granules which are dispersed 
throughout the whole system ; that these, when sup- 
plied with proper nutriment, multiply by self-division, 

21 



22 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

and are ultimately developed into units like those from 
which they were originally derived. These granules 
may be called gemmules. They are collected from all 
parts of the system to constitute the sexual elements, 
and their development in the next generation forms a 
new being; but they are likewise capable of transmission 
in a dormant state to future generations and may then 
be developed. Their development depends on their 
union with other partially developed or nascent cells 
which precede them in the regular course of growth. 
Why I use the term union will be seen when we discuss 
the direct action of pollen on the tissues of the mother 
plant. Gemmules are supposed to be thrown off by every 
unit, not only during the adult state, but during each 
stage of development of every organism, but not neces- 
sarily during the continued existence of the same unit. 
Lastly, I assume that the gemmules in their dormant 
state have a mutual affinity for each other, leading to 
their aggregation into buds or into the sexual elements. 
Hence, it is not the reproductive organs or buds which 
generate new organisms, but the units of which each 
individual is composed. These assun:ptions constitute 
the provisional hypothesis which I have called pan- 
genesis."* 

He later states : "I am aware that my view is merely 
a provisional hypothesis or speculation ; but until a bet- 
ter one is advanced it will serve to bring together a mul- 
titude of facts which are at present left disconnected by 
any efficient cause." 

Weismann's germ plasm. — In view of the importance 
of an intelligent idea of the source of the hereditary sub- 
stance and its subsequent behavior the hypothesis is 
given as stated by Weismann : 

"According to my view, the germ plasm (the hered- 
itary substance of a germ cell) of multicellular organ- 
isms is composed of ancestral germ plasms or ids — the 
vital units of the third order — each nuclear rod or idant 



*Char1es Darwin, "Animals and Plants Under Domestication," Cliapter 27. 



THE DETERMINERS OF HEREDITY 2^ 

being formed of a number of these. Each id in the germ 
plasm is built up of thousands or hundreds of thousands 
of determinants- — the vital units of the second order — 
which, in their turn, are composed of the actual bearers 
of vitality, or biophors — the ultimate vital units. The 
biophors are of various kinds, and each kind corresponds 
to a different part of a cell ; they are, therefore, the 
'bearers of the characters or qualities' of cells. Various 
but perfectly definite numbers and combinations of these 
form the determinants, each of which is the primary con- 
stituent of a particular cell, or of a small or even large 
group of cells (e. g., blood corpuscles). 

"These determinants control the cell by breaking up 
into biophors, which migrate into the cell body through 
the pores of the nuclear membrane, multiply there, ar- 
range themselves according to the forces within them, 
and determine the histological structure of the cell. But 
they only do so after a certain definitely prescribed 
period of development, during which they reach the cell 
which they have to control. 

"The cause of each determinant reaching its proper 
place in the body depends on the fact that it takes up a 
definite position in the id of germ plasm, and that the 
latter, therefore, exhibits an inherited and perfectly 
definite architecture. Ontogeny (development) depends 
on a gradual process of disintegration of the id of germ 
plasm, which splits into smaller and smaller groups of 
determinants in the development of each individual, so 
that in place of a million different determinants, of which 
we may suppose the id of germ plasm to be composed, 
each daughter cell in the next ontogenetic stage would 
only possess half a million, and each cell in the next 
following stage only a quarter of a million, and so on. 
Finally, if we neglect possible complications, only one 
kind of determinant remains in each cell, viz., that which 
has to control that particular cell or group of cells."* 

Opposite views. — According to Darwin, the deter- 



*August VVeismann, "The Germ Plasm," Part I, "The Material Basis of Heredity." 



M 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



miners of heredity, the gemmules, are given off from the 
body cells and dispersed throughout the whole system. 
While some of these gemmules are active and when 
properly nourished, multiply by self-division and ulti- 
mately develop into cells like those from which they were 
originally derived, other gemmules are dormant, and, 
having a mutual affinity for each other, collect into the 
sexual organs. 

According to Weismann, the determinants proceed 
from the germ plasm, the hereditary substance of the 
germ cell. These determinants control development by 
breaking up into biophores which migrate into the cell 
body, multiply there by self-division, and arrange them- 
selves according to forces from within. His idea of the 
"Continuity of the Germ Plasm" regards the hereditary 
material as passing from generation to generation with 
the minimum of influence from, or association with the 
body of the parent. According to this view the many 
changes which animals undergo from time to time are 
accounted for on the basis of selection. (Fig. 9.) 



S \Lx/2e. of -stjcczss/o/j 




^Jijne. of 
*"^ jnhizritsncz 



Fig. 9 — Diagram Illustrating Weismann's Theory of Descent 

G. The germ cells, which by division give rise to the body cells (S), and to new 
germ cells (G), which separate from the body cells and repeat the process in each 
successive generation. 



Approved practice not involved. — These are the two 
main theories on the subject of heredity. Actual ex- 
perimentation to determine the facts seems impossible. 
The intense interest has arisen over the assumption that 
if the hereditary determiners follow the Darwin hypoth- 
esis it is easy to explain the possibility of acquired char- 
acters being inherited ; whereas, if the hereditary bearers 



THE DETERMINERS OF HEREDITY 



-^j 



proceed according to the Weismann theory, it is dif- 
ficult to understand how a modification acquired by the 
parent can be transmitted to the offspring. 

This question is of vital importance to the student of 
genetics and has been the object of much careful study. 
No doubt it is one of the most discussed questions of the 
present time, as scientific men are divided in their opin- 
ion, many stating with much emphasis that under no 
condition can a modification acquired by a parent be 
transmitted to the offspring; while others are equally as 
positive that such modifications may be inherited. In- 
teresting as this question is to the student of genetics, 
it is only fair, at this time, to assure the breeder of 
animals that in actual practice it is of secondary im- 
portance. 

The hereditary bridge. — Having briefly reviewed the 
major theories of heredity and the principles involved, 
we will now pass to a consideration of the most approved 
ideas, giving them in as much detail as possible in the 
space at disposal. While little is definitely known of the 
determiners of hereditary characters which appear in 
successive generations, yet it is obvious that, in any 
event, such determiners are obtained from the two germ 
cells — male and female — and that they pass to the new 
organism in the fertilized egg. This single cell is the 
actual bridge between parent and offspring, and it is the 
only bridge. The only actual fragment of the paternal 
organism given over to the new individual is the single 
maturated sperm cell which in fertilization unites Mnth 
the maturated egg cell, the only fragment from the 
maternal parent. The entire heritage is packed into 
this single cell. 

The matter appears all the more wonderful when we 
consider the small as well as the unequal size of the two 
germ cells, for it has been shown conclusively that the 
egg cell and the sperm cell are equal in their hereditary 
influence, even though the former contains many thou- 



26 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

sand times the bulk of the latter. Thus the minuteness 
of the sperm cell is apparent when we reflect that the 
egg cell is about %25 of an inch in diameter. When we 
recall the marvelous array of characters which make up 
the sum total of what is obviously inherited, the am_aze- 
ment grows that so small a cell can contain such an 
enormous load. 

The fact that the heritage is completed at the time of 
fertilization is significant. Formerly there was much 
confusion in this matter. The statement was often made 
that the young animal's heritage was complete at birth. 
Now we understand the heritage to be completed, not 
at birth, but at a much earlier time, in fact at the time 
of conception. True, the subsequent development of 
the new individual may be retarded or accelerated by the 
care and nourishment of the maternal parent, before 
birth, as well as by the nourishment and training after 
birth. This is a matter of environment and development 
and cannot be considered as in any sense a hereditary 
relation. 

The hereditary material.- — The course of the hereditary 

determiners from their 
probable origin in the 
reproductive organs of 
the male and female to 
the mature sperm cell 
and egg cell respec- 
tively over the hered- 
itary bridge — the fer- 
tilized egg — to the em- 
bryo and thence to the 

F.G. 10-Shorthorn Bull "Shenstone ^^^ individual, SCCmS 

ALBINO ' 

clear and the route 
easily followed. However, the material nature and phys- 
ical make-up of these determiners is little understood 
and probably exceedingly complicated. 

It is conceded that there is something within the fer- 



THE DETERMINERS OF HEREDITY 2/ 

tilized egg that controls the unfolding of the developing 
organism. This control is complete with respect to both 
quantity and quality, and governs the time and rate of 
appearance of its various characters so that certain com- 
binations rather than others shall come about in defi- 
nite sequence. But just v^hat are the determiners of 
these hereditary qualities? Can they be discovered by 
the aid of the microscope, or are they chemical rather 
than morphological in their nature, such as enzymes, 
w^hich only the chemist can detect? 

The enzyme theory. — It has been suggested that hered- 
ity may ultimately be reduced to a series of chemical 
reactions depending upon the manner in w^hich various 
enzymes initiate, retard or accelerate successive chemical 
combinations occurring in the protoplasm. Thus it has 
been found that the blood of closely related varieties of 
dogs is chemically different, although from a morpholog- 
ical point of view it is apparently identical. Possibly 
these differences extend to individuals of the same 
variety. 

The possibilities in this direction seem unlimited when 
we reflect that an albumen compound having only 40 
carbon atoms, a number by no means unusual, would 
make possible millions of combinations of atoms. At 
present, however, all that can be said for the enzyme 
theory is that it is a bare possibility. It is suggested in 
this connection with the thought that it might aid in a 
clearer understanding of the possible nature of the de- 
terminers of heredity. 

The chromosome theory of heredity. — Since the nuclei 
of sperm cell and the egg cell are the only portions of 
these cells that invariably take part in fertilization, it has 
been suggested that the entire factor of heritage is 
packed into the nuclei of these germ cells. Although 
not fully demonstrated, it is entirely probable that the 
chromatin is the main seat of heredity and that the hered- 
itary determiners are to be located in the chromosomes. 



28 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

There are many reasons for this assumption, three of 
which are worthy of consideration. 

Notwithstanding the great relative difference in size 
between the sperm cell and the egg cell, they are prac- 
tically equivalent in their hereditary influence. This has 
been repeatedly shown by making reciprocal crosses be- 
tween the two sexes. The only features that are alike 
in the two cells are the chromosomes. The inference is, 
therefore, that they contain the hereditary determiners. 

The process of maturation by which the number of 
chromosomes is reduced one-half, as a preliminary step 
to fertilization, at which time the normal number is again 
restored, is just what is needed to bring together an en- 
tire complement of hereditary determiners, out of the 
partial contribution of the two parents. Since, in fer- 
tilization, no other part of the cells plays so consistent 
and important a part as the chromosomes, during this 
series of complicated changes, it would seem very prob- 
able that they contain the determiners of heredity. More- 
over, maturation is practiced by germ cells only. 

The fagt that certain chromosomes in the fertilized egg 
have been identified with particular features or combina- 
tion of features in the adult developing from that egg 
lends favor to the chromosome theory. This is strength- 
ened by the probable existence of an extra chromosome 
in connection with the determination of sex, as will be 
pointed out later in the discussion of sex in animal breeding. 

Such evidence as the foregoing has convinced many 
that in the chromosomes we have visibly before us the 
carriers of heredity. In fact, the supposition that the 
chromosomes, with certain chemical reservations, are the 
physical carriers of hereditary determiners forms an 
excellent working hypothesis. The determiners of 
heredity have been given a variety of names by various 
investigators, but it is sufficient for our purpose to con- 
sider the chromosomes as the physical basis of heredity. 

Chromosome combination. — Little is definitely known 



THE DETERMINERS OE HEREDITY 29 

concerning the makeup of the chromosomes or the dis- 
tribution among them of the control of the various por- 
tions of the body. Whether one chromosome could of 




Fig. u— Shorthorn Cow "Maxwalton Missie" 

itself, if necessary, direct the development of the entire 
body, or whether the determiners of different parts or 
organs are carried in separate chromosomes, is largely 
a matter of conjecture. True, certain chromosomes in 
the mature egg have been identified with particular fea- 
tures in the adult, but this is by no means sufficient data 
to warrant the general assertion that each particular 
character in the body is always governed by a certain 
chromosome in the mature egg. At present all we can 
conjecture is that the combined chromosomes carry the 
determiners of heredity. 

In this connection the chromosomes that go astray in 
maturation are significant. The possible chromosome 
combination in the maturation of the germ cells — male 
and female— as w?ll as their union in fertilization may 



30 . BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

explain much of the chance that attends all animal 
breeding. 

Origin of hereditary material. — Little is definitely 
known of the origin of the hereditary material. Men- 
tion is made of it at this time to show the difference in 
time of the development of the egg cells and the sperm 
cells and to point out the exact place of origin. The egg 
cells, we recall, are produced in the ovaries of the female. 
They are formed from specialized peritoneal cells known 
as germinal epithelium. In our domestic animals all 
permanent ova or egg cells are formed during fetal life, 
or very soon after birth, although they do not attain 
sexual maturity for some time, the period varying with 
the class of animal. The sperm cells are produced in 
the testicle of the male. These cells are produced in 
the specialized spermatogenic cells and are formed 
continuously throughout the productive period of the 
animal's life. 

Basis of controlling determiners of heredity. — To ob- 
tain the greatest possible control over heredity is the 
aim of the breeder. But, if the hereditary bearers largely 
are conveyed in the chromosomes of the germ cells, then 
no degree of human influence is conceivable. To find 
a basis of controlling heredity to improve farm animals 
we must consider the source of hereditary determiners. 
We have shown that whatever the determiners may be, 
they come from the parent, although, as we shall ' see 
presently, they are influenced by previous ancestors. In 
animal improvement, therefore, we must concentrate our 
attention and eft'orts upon the parents and the ancestors. 
They should be carefully developed in order to bring out 
their possibilities, and they should be of proven worth 
as breeders. By the selecting of animals containing the 
hereditary material with maximum possibilities of de- 
sired features and the minimum of those undesirable, 
we can achieve a general control over the hereditary 
characters of the offspring. 



CHAPTER IV 
HEREDITY IN ANIMAL BREEDING 

The behavior of characters as they pass from parent to 
offspring has been the object of much careful study. In 
considering the advisability of mating two animals it 
is exceedingly desirable to knov^^ the possibilities of the 
offspring. From time to time many attempts have been 
made to deduce laws which would serve as guides to 
the breeder. The complicated nature of heredity makes 
the formation of such laws exceedingly difficult. This 
is exhibited in the six fundamental propositions sug- 
gested by Brewer, late professor in the Shefffeld Scien- 
tific School of Yale University. 

Brewer's fundamental propositions — These proposals 
were given as suggestions in the breeding of farm 
animals, before the rediscovery of Mendel's law of 
heredity, hereafter to be considered, and are as follows: 

1. Every animal must have two parents, and every 
animal resembles its parents in most of its characteris- 
tics. There is a force or tendency to keep offspring like 
their parents or descendants like their ancestors. This 
is called the law of inheritance (like produces like). 

2. No two animals are alike or identical in all respects. 
Hence offspring are never precisely like their ancestors. 
This is known as the law of variation. 

3. Vastly more animals are produced than are needed 
for breeding, and only those having the highest aggregate 
of good points should be used in breeding. This is called 
the law of selection. 

4. By training, environment and selection in pairing, 
the form may be modified and the relative value of the 
various points or characters changed so as to better suit 

31 



32 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

the use or the fancy of the breeder. This is called breed- 
ing to points. 

5. By continued breeding to points, the characters may 
be increased beyond what they were in the ancestry. 
This is called improvement of breeds. 

6. The more uniform the ancestry in character and the 
more restricted in number, the more uniform and certain 
the resulting descendants. The converse holds equally 
true. The former is known as inbreeding, the latter as 
out-crossing. 

Complex nature of heredity. — Among animals reliable 
data illustrating the free play of heredity are exceedingly 
meager. The advanced registers contain much valuable 
material for the guidance of breeders, but it is selected 
material, as the animals failing to meet requirements are 
not recorded. Possibly the most complete data that have 
been collected, illustrating the free play of heredity, are 
those of the English scientist Galton. He worked upon 
the stature of English people. This material is used in 
this connection, as it illustrates as nothing else can the 
relation between offspring in general and their parentage. 
Later the principles involved will be confirmed in studies 
among dairy cattle and horses of speed. 

These data are given in the tabulation, in which the 
heights of 928 adult children are classified and compared 
with the heights of their parents. The heights of the 
adult children are listed at the top, and those of the 
midparents on the left. By midparental height is meant 
one-half of the combined heights of father and mother 
after increasing the mother's height by one-eighth. In 
his studies Galton found that women are one-eighth 
(12.5%) shorter than men. Thus he multiplied all 
female heights, both mothers and adult daughters, by 
1.08 to convert them into male equivalents. By way of 
explanation we see that of the 928 persons whose heights 
were taken, 138 were 67.2 inches high. Of these, four 
were born from 71.5-inch parents; three from 70.5-inch 



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34 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



parents ; 27 from 69.5-inch parents ; and so on for the 
shorter parents. A careful analysis of the data in the 
table illustrates the very complex nature of heredity. 

In the discussion the relative terms low and high are 
used to designate short and tall stature respectively. 

^ In his study the 
breeder may substi- 
tute any character 
he has under con- 
sideration, such as 
low and high milk 
yield, late and early 
maturity and like 
j characters. 
! Offspring in gen- 
J eral resemble par- 
ents.- — S i n c e the 
measurements of 
the midparents are recorded at the one-half inch 
and the adult children at the two-tenths of an 
inch, exact comparison is not possible. However, if we 
compare the heights of the midparents with the heights 




Fig. 12 — Guernsey Bull "Hayes Cherub 2d" 



Offspring in General Similar to Parents 



Parental 


Low 


Similar 


High 


Total 


height 


offspring 


offspring 


offspring 


offspring 


72.5 


4 


11 


4 


19 


71.5 


16 


23 


4 


43 


70.5 


19 


39 


10 


68 


69.5 


65 


78 


40 


183 


68.5 


60 


113 


46 


219 


67.5 


37 


102 


72 


211 


66.5 


11 


36 


31 


78 


65.5 


10 


23 


33 


66 


64.5 


2 


9 


12 


23 


Total 


224 


434 


252 


910 


Per cent. 


25 


48 


27 


100 



HEREDITY IN ANIMAL BREEDING 35 

of the three nearest groups of adult children, we will 
observe that there is general similarity between the 
parents and offspring. This is shown in the preceding 
tabulation, in which the parent is compared with the 
offspring, the latter being divided in three parts — sim- 
ilar, low and high — the similar including the sum of the 
three groups nearest the parental height, the low the 
sum of those below, and the high the sum of those above. 

This division of offspring slightly favors the tall 
stature, giving the high group a larger per cent than the 
low group, which no doubt would be reversed were exact 
comparison possible. The significant fact is that the 
similar, although including but three groups, contains 48 
per cent of the total number of offspring. 

Particular offspring unlike the parent. — While in the 
main the new individual resembles the parent, in particu- 
lar cases, that is the best that can be said for it. The 
most striking feature of the table is that offspring are 
unlike their parents. There is limited similarity between 
specific parents and their particular off-spring. In other 
words, like parents as well as the same parents, in suc- 
cessive generations, produce unlike offspring, see any 
row in the table; and like offspring are produced by 
unlike parents, see any column in the table (p. 33). 

Every new individual inherits all of the characters of 
the race to which it belongs. Not all characters, how- 
ever, will be inherited with the same intensity. Some 
will be evident in the make-up of the new individual, 
while others will not be apparent. The visible char- 
acters of one parent, or even of both, give no assurance 
of what will appear in the offspring. In fact, there is no 
true guide whereby we may know for a certainty what 
will happen in individual cases. It is only fair to assure 
the breeder, however, that sufficient data have been col- 
lected to show how ofi'spring in general compare with 
the parentage, and how general as well as specific im- 
provement may be accomplished. 



36 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

Some offspring higher and some lower than their 
parents. — The table indicates that no matter what the 
parents, whether low or high, some of the offspring will 
be lower and some higher than their parents. Thus, if 
we divide the table (p. 33) into two parts, as indicated by the 
diagonal line, placing those offspring that are superior to 
their parents below the line and those that are inferior 
above the line, we get the following results : 



Inferior to parents 



Superior to parents 



Number of offspring. . 
Per cent, of offspring. 



517 

55.7 



411 
44.2 



Due to the dift'erence in recorded heights between 
parent and offspring, it is not possible to divide the table 
exactly. The results obtained, however, show clearly 
that 44 per cent of the offspring are superior to their 
parents, while 56 per cent are approximately equal or 
inferior to their parents. 

Medium offspring the most frequent. — A careful study 
of the table reveals the fact that mediocrity seems to be 

the common lot. This is in- 
dicated when we compare 
the average height of the 
midparents, which is 68.6 
inches, with the average 
height of all adult children, 
which is 68.0 inches. Ob- 
serve how the population 
clusters about the number 
34, which is the nearest 
representative of the aver- 
midparent and adult chil- 
dren. This is shown by the number of offspring con- 
tained within the light dotted lines, which includes 47 




Fig. 13 — Guernsey Cow "Dolly Dimple" 



a^e heisfht of both the 



HEREDITY IN ANIMAL BREEDING 37 

per cent of the total population. The principle involved 
here is that whatever the parent — high or low^ — the off- 
spring tend strongly toward the average of the race. 

The high parent and his offspring. — High parents pro- 
duce both low and high offspring. This is well illustrated 
in the case of the 70.5-inch parents, which are 2 inches 
above the average for all parents. Of the entire off- 
spring, 68 in number, one is almost a dwarf and 51 are 
lower than their parents, with seven distinctly below the 
average of the race. This tendency toward inferiority 
is known as regression. On the other hand, there are 17 
offspring, or exactly one-fourth, superior to their excep- 
tionally good parents. The higher we go among the ex- 
ceptional parents the more this is true and the larger is 
the percentage of superior offspring. This tendency 
toward superiority is known as progression. 

The high offspring and his parents. — We now come to 
a consideration of the production of superior animals, the 
goal of all animal breeding. The table shows that su- 
perior animals may be produced in various ways. For 
example, while the offspring in the 72.2-inch column are 
clearly superior, ranging over six feet in height, yet they 
were produced by all kinds of parents, from the very 
tallest down to 65.5. While the parents were thus dis- 
tributed the greatest percentage of superior offspring 
came from extremely tall parents, although the greatest 
number came from medium parents. Thus the greatest 
number — 11 — came from a medium population of 183, 
or less than one in 17, whereas next to the highest — 
seven in number — came from a high population of 19, or 
more than one in three. In other words, we stand one 
chance in 17 to get a high offspring when selecting for 
breeding purposes from medium parents, and one chance 
in three when selecting from high parents. 

High parents produce both high and low offspring, 
and low parents produce both high and low offspring. 
But under suitable environment high parents produce 



38 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



more high offspring and fewer low offspring, while low 
parents produce more low offspring and fewer high off- 
spring. Thus, if we divide the table into four parts as 
indicated by the heavy lines we get the following results : 



Low offspring 



High offspring 



Number Per cent. Number Per cent. 



High parents. 
Low parents. 

Total.... 



241 
296 


45 
55 


295 
96 


537 


100 


391 



Of the 537 offspring classified as low, 55 per cent of 
them are produced by low parents, while but 45 per 
cent are produced by high parents. The interesting 
fact is that of the 391 offspring classified as high, 75 
per cent of them are produced by high parents, while 
only 25 per cent of them are the get of low parents. 

The law of ancestral heredity. — We have seen that 
the new individual inherits all of the characters of the 
race to which it belongs, but that many of these char- 
acters are not evident in the make-up of the animal. We 
now come to a consideration of the probable resemblance 
between the new individual and his parents and to the 
extent to which he resembles more remote ancestors. 
Galton and Pearson have given much study to this ques- 
tion, and although working along independent lines, they 
have arrived at practically the same conclusions. 

They state that on the average the two immediate 
parents contribute between them one-half of the effective 
heritage, the grandparents one-fourth, the great-grand- 
parents one-eighth, and so on to infinity, so that the total 
heritage would be represented by one. This is called 
"Galton's law of ancestral heredity," and applies to 
generations and not to individual offspring. According 



HEREDITY IN ANIMAL BREEDING 



39 



to this law, the effective heritage contributed by each 
generation and by each separate ancestor may be repre- 
sented as follows : 

Galton's Law of Ancestral Heredity 



Generation of 


Number of 


Hereditary contri- 


Hereditary contri- 


ancestors 


ancestors 


bution of each 


bution of each 






generation 


ancestor 


1 


2 


l/i 


% 


2 


4 


% 


Vio 


3 


8 


% 


yo4 


4 


16 


yi6 


Vaso 


5 


32 


1/32 


yi02.i 


6 


6-1 


V.U 


%ll!)(! 



This table is significant, as it indicates clearly the great 
importance of the immediate parents as well as the value 
of pure ancestors. Not infrequently, especially in animal 




Fig. 14 — Cheviot Shi;ei' ui' Guuu Tvin^ 



40 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

breeding, much stress is placed on some noted remote 
ancestor. According to the table, a superior ancestor in 
the fifth generation has but one chance in over one 
thousand in stamping a character upon the offspring. 

The table also indicates the importance of pure an- 
cestors, if we wish to foretell the characteristics of the 
offspring. If all the lines are pure, then we may be 
reasonably sure that the oft'spring will be like his an- 
cestors. On the other hand, if the ancestors are mixed, 
no one can foretell what the offspring will be like. 

Reversion and atavism. — These two terms are used to 
designate characters reappearing in the offspring, but 
not visible in the parents. Unfortunately these terms 
are used more or less interchangeably. Best usage war- 
rants defining atavism as "grandparentism ;" that is, 
skipping a generation, with the result that a character 
in the offspring is unlike that of either parent, but sim- 
ilar to the character in one of the grandparents. Good 
examples are furnished by the frequent occurrence of red 
calves among Aberdeen-Angus from black parents, as 
well as of red and white Holstein-Friesian calves from 
black and white parents. 

On the other hand, reversion may be defined as the 
reappearance of a character which has not been manifest 
perhaps for many generations, although it was actually 
present in some remote ancestor. A good illustration 
is seen in the occurrence, now and then, of stripes or 
bars on the shoulders and legs of the horse. The appear- 
ance of a case of either atavism or reversion is interest- 
ing, but neither has any practical significance in animal 
improvement, as they can be discarded by selection the 
same as any other undesirable character. 

Blended, exclusive and particulate inheritance. — Some- 
times the oft'spring will be intermediate between the 
parents, showing a blend ; sometimes it will resemble 
"one or the other parent, showing exclusive inheritance ; 
while at other times the offspring will show traces of 



HEREDITY IN ANIMAL BREEDING 4I 

both parents, each distinct and separate, which is known 
as particulate inheritance. A good example of these 
three types of inheritance is furnished in the case of 
color among farm animals. In the coat color of horses 
blended and exclusive inheritance is common, while par- 
ticulate inheritance is occasionally observed. White 
and black parents often produce a roan or a gray of vary- 
ing shades ; at other times the offspring will inherit the 
color of one parent to the exclusion of the other, and 
thus be white or black; while occasionally, especially in 
the case of ponies, the new individual inherits the color 
of both parents, and is black and white or piebald. In 
such cases possibly the type of inheritance depends in a 
large measure on the purity of the coat color of the 
parent. The best illustration of particular inheritance 
is observed in the case of swine, where spotted offspring 
from black and white parents are very common, owing 
to the impurity of the coat color in the case of the 
parents, due to extended crossing in the formation of 
the breeds. 



CHAPTER V 
MENDEL'S LAW OF HEREDITY 

The most promising law for the guidance of breeders 
at the present time is that discovered by Gregor Johann 
Mendel, a teacher of the physical and natural sciences in 
a monastic school at Briinn, Austria, in the second half 
of the last century. For eight years Mendel made a 
series of studies, mostly with peas, on the behavior of 
certain hereditary characters, from which he drew some 
general conclusions now known as "Mendel's law of 
heredity," which deals with the inheritance of contrast- 
ing or allelomorphic characters in animals and plants. 
Although brief accounts of these experiments were pub- 
lished in 1865, they attracted no attention until 1900, 
when three botanists, de Vries of Holland, von Tscher- 
mak of Austria, and Correns of Germany, working in- 
dependently, came to much the same conclusions as 
those formerly stated by Mendel. Since 1900 Mendel's 
law has easily held first place among biological workers. 

The law when one pair of characters is involved, mono- 
hybrids. — To get the essential features of this law before 
us, we will consider an illustration. The case of -coat 
color among guinea pigs furnishes a good example. If 
we mate a black guinea pig of pure descent with a white 
one, the offspring will all be black, similar to the black 
parent, and none will be white. The black color dom- 
inates in the cross, and, as Mendel says, the white re- 
cedes from view. The black character, therefore, is 
called the dominant character, and the white the recessive 
character. 

Now, if two of these cross-bred black guinea pigs be 
mated with each other, one-fourth of the offspring will 
be of the same color as the white grandparent, one-fourth 



MENDEL S LAW OF HEREDITY 



43 



the same as the black grandparent, and one-half the same 
as the cross-bred black parents. In other words, one- 
fourth will be pure white, and when mated with each 
other will produce only white offspring; one-fourth pure 
black, and when mated with each other will produce only 
black offspring; and one-half cross-bred black, similar 
to their black parents, and will behave in a similar man- 
Such an experiment 



ner when mated with each other. 
is difficult, as we cannot tell the 
cross-bred black until they 
have been mated and their 
offspring observed. 

This phenomenon is not dif- 
ficult of explanation when but 
one pair of allelomorphic char- 
acters are involved. The ma- 
ture germ cells or gametes which 
united in the original cross were 
one black and the other white in 
character. Both characters were 
present in the cross-bred off- 
spring, but black, from its na- 
ture, dominated. When the 
cross-bred black individuals 
produce germ cells, the black 
and white characters separate 
from each other and pass into 
different cells. Thus the egq 
cells formed by a female cross- 
bred black are half of them 
black and half of them white in 
character. The same is true of 
the sperm cells formed by a male 
cross-bred black. The egg cell 
that is fertilized is as likely to 
l)e one as the other, and the 



pure black from the 




Fig. 15. — Black and White Guinea 

Pigs Showing Mendelian 

Phenomena 

1. Black female guinea pig and 
her young. 2. White male guinea 
pig, father of black young. 3. 
Two of the grown up young of a 
black and white guinea pig. 4. A 
group of four young produced by 
the grown up animals above.* 



*Figs. 15 and 17 from "Heredity," by permission of both the author, W. E. 
Castle, and the publisher, D. Appleton & Company. 



44 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



sperm cell sharing- in fertilization has similar possibili- 
ties. The results, therefore, would be as follows: 



Male gametes 
Cross-bred 
sperm cells 



Female gametes 
Cross-bred 
egg cells 




Zygotes 

WW = 1 W W pure white 

B W 

B W 

B B = 1 B B pure black 



"2 B W cross-bred black 



'; Diagram illustrating the union of male and female gametes, resulting in the 
occurrence of oflFspring ir Mendelian proportions. 

Perhaps the most convenient way of representing the 
supposed causes of Mendelian segregation, especially 
where more than one pair of characters is involved, is by 
the use of the four-square table. Along the top of the 
table are written the two kinds of characters that occur 
in equal numbers among the male germ cells of the cross- 
bred and along the left of .the table are written the same 
factors for the female germ cells. 



Black X white = black cross-bred 
Cross-bred male gametes 



W 



I 




B B 


B W 






s 


B 


pure 


cross-bred 






bo 

0) 




black 


black 






■s 












E 










\ Zygotes 


til 












-d 




B W 


WW 






XI 


W 


cross-bred 


pure 






o 

u 




black 


white 







Diagram illustrating the union of male and female gametes, resulting in Mendelian 
proportions when one pair of characters is involved. 



MENDEL S LAW OF HEREDITY 45 

Dominants and recessives. — When two distinct vari- 
eties are crossed, in which one is dominant with regard 
to a certain character, while the other is recessive, the 
first hybrid generation (F^) is an impure dominant. On 
interbreeding the second generation (Fo) can be divided 
into four parts — one pure dominant, two impure dom- 
inants and one pure recessive. The impure dominants 
on interbreeding split into the same proportions, while 
the pure dominants and recessives each time breed true 
for all successive generations. This may be illustrated 
diagrammatically as follows : 




nn D(n) nfn) an. 



Fig. 16 — Diagram Illustrating Mendelian Dominants and Recessives, in Which 

DD Stands for Pure Dominants, RR for Pure Recessives and D(R) for 

Impure Dominants (After Herbert) 

It is important to remember that this discussion ap- 
plies to characters and not to individuals. Thus when 
w^e say that an animal arising from cross-bred parents 



46 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



breeds true or pure, we mean only as to the single char- 
acter involved. 

The law when two pairs of characters are involved, 
dihybrids. — For convenience we will continue the illus- 
tration with guinea pigs, contrasting long and white hair 
with short and dark hair. If we mate a short-haired 
dark guinea pig of pure descent with a long-haired white 
one, the offspring will all be short-haired and dark. 
Thus short hair and dark hair are dominant, while long 
hair and white hair are recessive. If two of the cross- 



short — dark Xlong — w'.iite =short —dark cross-bred 
Cross-bred male gametes 







S D 


SVkT 


LD 


L W 






SS D D 


SS D W 


SL D D 


SL D W 




SD 


short 
dark 


short 
dark 


short 
dark 


short 
dark 






pure 


cross-bred 


cross-bred 


cross-bred 




SS D W 


SS WW 


SL D W 


S L W W 


60 


s w 


short 


short 


short 


short 




dark 


white 


dark 


white 


B 




cross-bred 


pure 


cross-bred 


cross-bred 












<+-. 














S L D D 


SL D W 


LL D D 


LL DW 


j^ 


LD 


short 


short 


long 


long 


o 




dark 


dark 


dark 


dark 






cross-bred 


cross-bred 


pure 


cross-bred 




SL D W 


SL WW 


LL DW 


LL WW 




L W 


short 


short 


long 


long 






dark 


white 


dark 


white 






cross-bred 


cross-bred 


cross-bred 


pure 



Diagram illustrating the union of male and female gametes, resulting in the 
occurrence of Mendelian proportions when two pairs of characters are involved. 



MENDEL S LAW OF HEREDITY 



47 



bred animals be mated with each other, four kinds of 
offspring will result : Dark and short-haired, like one 
grandparent ; white and long-haired, like the other grand- 
parent ; dark and long-haired, a new form ; and white and 
short-haired, a second new form. 

The segregation in the germ cells resulting in these 
forms can be clearly illustrated diagrammatically by the 
use of the sixteen-square table on the preceding page. 

Now, the four kinds of guin- 
ea pigs obtained from such 
a cross will not be equally 
numerous. Since, as we have 
seen in the black-white cross, 
dominants are three times as 
numerous as recessives, we 
should, therefore, expect the 
short-haired to be three times as 
numerous as the long-haired 
ones, and the dark ones to be 
three times as numerous as the 
white ones. Further, animals 
which are both short-haired and 
dark should be 3 times 3, or nine 
times as numerous as those 
which are not. Thus, we have 
the Mendelian proportion, nine 
short-haired dark, three long- 
haired dark, three short-haired 
white, and one long-haired white, 
which is closely approximated in 
actual experience. 

The breeding powers of these 
four forms are exceedingly com- 
plicated. The double recessive 
long-white is the only individual 
that will breed true. All other 
forms require trial breeding to 
establish their identity. This 




Fig. 17 — Guinea Pigs Illustrat- 
ing Mendelian Phenomena 
When Two Pair of Char- 
acters Are Involved 

L Long-haired white parent. 2. 
Short-haired dark parent. 3. 
Long-haired darlc, a new form 
arising when offspring of types 1 
and 2 are interbred. 4. Short- 
haired white, a second new form 
arising when offspring of types 1 
and 2 are interbred. 



48 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



breeding power may be most conveniently exhibited in 
tabular form as follows : 



Distinguish- 
able types 


Zygotically 
different types 


Num- 
ber 


Breeding properties when mated 
with each other 




(1) SS DD 


1 


Produces short-haired dark only 




(2) S S D W 


2 


Produces short-haired dark, about 
75 per cent, and short-haired while* 
about 25 per cent. 


9 SD 

Short 


(3) S L D D 


2 


Produces short-haired dark, about 
75 per cent, and long-haired dark 
about 25 per cent. 


Dark 


(4) SL DW 


4 


Produces short-haired dark ; short- 
haired white ; long-haired dark; and 
long-haired white in the ratio of 
9:3:3:1 


3 SW 


(5) SS WW 


1 


Produces short-haired white only 


Short 
White 


(6) SL WW 


2 


Produces short-haired white about 
75 per cent, and long-haired white 
about 25 per cent. 


3L D 


(7) LL D D 


1 


Produces long-haired dark only. 


Long 
Dark 


(8) LL DW 


2 


Produces long-haired dark about 75 
per cent, and long-haired white 
about 25 per cent. 


1 LW 

Long 
White 


(9) LL WW 


1 


Produces long-haired white only. 



Diagram illustrating the breeding properties of Mendelian offspring when two 
pairs of characters are involved. 
*New forms in italics. 



Three Mendelian principles. — Mendel's law as illus- 
trated in the crossing of pure animals with contrasting 
characters depends on three factors — unit-characters, 
dominance and segregation. In the illustration it was 
apparent that there was no relation between the length 
of hair and its color; each was transmitted entirely in- 
dependent of the other. The length of hair, therefore, 
is one unit-character, while the color of the hair is an- 



MENDEL S LAW OF HEREDITY 49 

other. Ill the germ cells there are certain determiners 
of unit-characters which dominate others during the de- 
velopment ; thus they determine the apparent character 
of the individual by causing that character to become 
visible. This constitutes the dominant characters, as 
in the cross-bred black guinea pig in the illustration. 

The idea of segregation depends upon the conception 
that the animal is made up of a bundle of unit-characters 
which may be rearranged without disturbing the identity 
of the various characters. When like characters are 
joined together, as B with B (p. 44), the animal is said to 
be hoinozygous. On the other hand, when unlike char- 
acters are joined, as B with W, the individual is said to 
be heterozygous. Recessive individuals are always 
homozygous, as W W, for example. They do not con- 
tain the dominant character, otherwise they would 
show it. 

Creation of new forms. — When short-haired dark 
guinea pigs of pure descent are mated with long-haired 
white ones and the hybrid form resulting therefrom inter- 
bred, two new varieties arise — long-haired dark and 
short-haired white. New varieties may be created by 
gain, loss or transfer of characters from existing forms. 
Having obtained a new variety, the next step is to fix it 
so that it will breed true from generation to generation. 
To fix these new forms so that they will breed true is 
somewhat involved, especially when there are a number 
of dominant characters, although it would be compar- 
atively simple if dealing with a combination containing 
only recessive characters, as they are always homozygous 
and hence breed true from the beginning. 

The most direct method of fixing a new variety would 
be to test by suitable mating the unit-characters of each 
individual to determine which are homozygous, and breed 
from those, as they show only the desirable combination 
of characters, and to reject all heterozygous individuals, 
as they contain undesirable characters. Thus, if we were 



50 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

to fix the short-haired white variety, we would deter- 
mine by mating the S S W W individuals in the tables 
(pp. 46 and 48), and select these for breeding, rejecting all 
others. In this way a pure race may be established. Such a 
method, though sure, is likely to be very slow, as the 
numbers are limited, and it involves the application of 
the breeding test to many individuals in order to deter- 
mine the homozygous individuals, most of which must 
then be rejected. 

It is, therefore, often better in practice to breed from 
all animals showing the desired characters — in this case 
short-haired white — and eliminate from their offspring 
such individuals as do not show the proper combination 
of characters. The short-haired white variety will thus 
be gradually purified and a large stock of it can be built 
up much more quickly. 

Application of Mendel's law. — The examples show that 
the coat color character and the length of hair character 
can be transferred from one guinea pig to another when 
separate animals possessing these particular characters 
are mated according to Mendel's law. The long-hair 
character of the original white animal was transferred to 
the dark animal ; and the short hair of the original dark 
animal was transferred to the white animal. Likewise, 
the white coat of the original long-haired animal was 
transferred to the short-haired animal, and the dark coat 
of the short-haired animal was transferred to the long- 
haired animal. 

In plants this transfer of characters from one individ- 
ual to another has been demonstrated to be of great 
economic importance. Thus the stiff character of the 
straw of low-yielding varieties of wheat has been trans- 
ferred to high-yielding varieties, in which much trouble 
had previously been experienced from broken straw. 
Likewise, immunity to rust in wheat has been transferred 
to varieties which formerly were very susceptible to rust. 
There are numerous examples of this sort among plants. 



Mendel's law of heredity 51 

Among animals fewer cases of the Mendelian phe- 
nomena have been reported, although it is stated that the 
trotting and pacing habit among horses behaves accord- 
ing to Mendel's law, also that chestnut color is a Mende- 
lian recessive. The red and white color of Shorthorn 
cattle is said to be transmitted in Mendelian proportions, 
as is also the hornless character when appearing in 
horned breeds of cattle. Many features of the comb, the 
plumage and the rumpless condition of poultry have been 
shown to be inherited in accordance with Mendel's law. 
Poultrymen experience difficulty in breeding blue 
Andalusian fowls. When blue Andalusians are mated 
together, the offspring are of three colors — black, blue 
and white — in the Mendelian proportion of 1:2:1, while 
the result of crossing a black and a white is a blue 
Andalusian. This shows conclusively that the blue 
Andalusian is a cross-bred, and the significant point to 
remember is that it will not breed true. 

Transferring characters. — At the present time there is 
very little data available to show to what extent the more 
economic factors, such as high fertility, early maturity, rapid 
fattening, high quality in milk and like characters, follow the 
Mendelian proportions in transmission. In this connection 
James Wilson of the Royal College of Science, Dublin, Ire- 
land, makes some interesting observations. He says : "There 
are many cases of the transference of characters from 
one race to another. Modern Aberdeen-Angus cattle got 
their size, and probably their fattening capacity, from 
English Longhorns and Shorthorns ; their color from the 
old Celtic cattle ; their hornlessness from cattle brought 
from Scandinavia by the Norsemen, and probably also 
the shortness of the leg and the high quality of milk 
which they frequently manifest, from the same source. 
Shorthorns got their flecks from Dutch cattle and their 
white color from the white cattle existing in the North 
of England in the i8th century. The roans are crosses 
between the white and the red. The North Devons 



52 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

probably got their shortness of leg from Norse cattle. 
The American polled Herefords and Durhams got their 
hornlessness chiefly from Norfolk polled, and some of 
it from Aberdeen-Angus cattle."* 

Wilson also gives an example of transferring the Jersey 
high quality milk, testing about 5 per cent, to Red 
Danish cattle, testing about 3.3 per cent butter fat, by 
practically the same method as that suggested in the 
discussion on creation of new forms (p. 49). f 

Possibilities of Mendelism. — The discovery of the Men- 
delian phenomena opens a vast field of research. Among 
animals practically nothing has been done to determine 
the possibilities of Mendelism. Few accurate observa- 
tions have been made, and those of Wilson are very sug- 
gestive. Think of the advantage to be gained could the 
high flow of the Holstein-Friesian, the high quality of 
Jersey milk and the early maturity of the Aberdeen- 
Angus be transferred to the Shorthorn, or could the 
vigor and fertility of the Large Yorkshire and the qual- 
ity of the Cheshire be transferred to the Poland China ! 
Likewise, think of the economic advantage to be gained 
could the quality of the Arabian, the endurance of the 
mustang, the action of the Standardbred, and' the fer- 
tility and longevity of the Thoroughbred be transferred 
to the Percheron ! Hitherto we have held such to be 
physically impossible, and no doubt much of it is, al- 
though, so far, exact proof is wanting. 

On the other hand, if we place reliance in Wilson's 
observations, then the triple-purpose cow — beef, butter, 
milk — not only seems to be a possibility, but very prob- 
able. We now have abundant data to show that fat 
cows give as much and more milk and butter fat than 
lean cows. Now, if high-quality fat can be transferred 
to the high-milking cow, then there is no physical reason 
why we cannot develop a triple-purpose cow; that is, a 



*James Wilson, "The Principles of Stock Breeding," pp. 95, 96. 
t James Wilson, "The Principles of Stock Breeding," pp. 126-132. 



MENDEL'S LAW OF HEREDITY 53 

COW yielding a Holstein-Friesian flow of Jersey quality 
and at the same time producing Shorthorn beef. 

In view of the vast opportunity before the Shorthorn 
breeders, together with the strong demand for dual-purpose 
cattle, it seems strange that this is the only breed whose ad- 
herents are advocating dairy or dual-purpose cattle that has 
not established a system of advanced registry in which to 
record dairy performance. There seems to be no reason 
to doubt phenomenal development in dual-purpose and 
possible triple-purpose Shorthorns were the breeders 
given encouragement similar to that given the Holstein- 
Friesian breeders. 

Mendelism and reversion. — -Mendel's theory explains 
why reversions appear and why they gradually decrease 
with time. Take, for example, the red color among 
Aberdeen-Angus cattle. Among the original stock there 
were many colors, such as red, yellow, dun, brown, white 
and the like, although black predominated. However, 
red was the only color which was recessive to the desired 
color, black, and the only one which could be carried 
by a black animal without the animal showing its 
presence. Thus, by avoiding the other colors, they were 
rapidly eliminated. Not so with the red; it, being a 
recessive, was frequently concealed beneath the black. 
Red and white among Holstein-Friesian cattle act in a 
similar manner. 

Black animals which produce red calves are impure 
blacks. They contain both red and black determiners. 
When such a reversion appears the breeder usually 
eliminates the cow, lest some of her descendants may 
be similarly marked. No blame is placed on the bull 
with which she was mated ; nevertheless, he is equally 
responsible, for unless both are impure blacks or reces- 
sives, they could not have produced a red calf. In fact, 
the possible damage the cow could have done is very 
small when compared with the bull. On the average, 
when mated with pure black bulls, she could have pro- 



54 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

duced only one impure black every two years, while 
the bull, even though mated with pure black cows, could 
have left 30 or 40 times that number. The breeder, of 
course, can have no suspicion that his stock is impure 
in color until two impure blacks are mated, for then only 
will the red appear, and that but one in four on the average. 

Limitations of Mendelism. — Practically all of the 
animal characters that have been mentioned as unit- 
characters, following Mendel's law, are external ones. 
These are of little importance in animal breeding. Few 
experimental attempts have been made to determine 
unit-characters of the body-form or function. Such fac- 
tors are exceedingly difficult to investigate. In a con- 
sideration of the inheritance of such factors the chief 
difficulty lies in the possibility that a number of char- 
acters are concerned, many of which, for various reasons, 
do not seem to follow the Mendelian phenomena. In 
fact, the importance of Mendel's law has been retarded 
rather than advanced by the attempt at universal applica- 
tion on the part of its adherents generally. Among farm 
animals experience in crossing types to improve the form 
or function has thus far proven very disastrous. This 
is a very common practice of the American farmer, but 
certainly does not seem to be a wise one. 

As has been seen, when but two pairs of unit-char- 
acters are involved the offspring are of four sorts, two 
of which are exceedingly difficult to fix (p. 49). This 
difficulty increases rapidly as the unit-characters in- 
volved increase. This is well illustrated by mating 
two guinea pigs with three pairs of characters, as color, 
length and direction of hair. Thus if we mate a short- 
haired, dark, smooth guinea pig with a long-haired, white 
and rough one the resulting offspring will be short- 
haired, dark and rough, these being the three dominant 
characters, two derived from one parent and one from 
the other. 

Now, if these short-haired, dark and rough cross-bred 



Mendel's law of heredity 55 

animals be mated with each other the offspring will be of 
eight sorts and in the following proportions : 

27 short-haired, dark, rough 3 long-haired, dark, smooth 

9 short-haired, white, rough 3 long-haired, white, smooth 

9 short-haired, dark, smooth 3 short-haired, white, smooth 

9 long-haired, dark, rough 1 long-haired, white, smooth 

Likewise, if four pairs of characters are involved, the 
offspring will be of i6 different varieties and in the pro- 
portion of 8i : 27 : 27 : 27 : 27 : 9 : 9 : 9 : 9 : 9 : 9 : 3 : 

3 : 3 •• 3 : I- 

The large number of new types and the difficulty of 
fixing them seems very remote, especially when we con- 
template the crossing of fixed breeds of farm animals. 
The trial breeding and the elimination necessary to fix 
new types, when only a few pairs of characters are in- 
volved is so great as to make it impractical. When but 
one pair is considered, only one in four is pure for one 
character, and the number of pure stock produced grows 
rapidly smaller as the number of characters increases, as 
shown in the tabulation : 

1 pair 1 animal in 4 is pure for one character 

2 pairs 1 animal in 16 is pure for any two characters 

3 pairs 1 animal in 64 is pure for any three characters 

4 pairs 1 animal in 256 is pure for any four characters 

5 pairs 1 animal in 1024 is pure for any five characters 

The number of characters involved in crossing any of 
the breeds of farm animals is great, and the number of 
animals necessary for the trial breeding, as well as the 
very large elimination, places the practical working of 
Mendel's law in a very different light from that in which 
it appears to the plant breeder, where numbers are of 
no consequence. 



CHAPTER VI 
SELECTION IN ANIMAL BREEDING 

The breeding of useful farm animals depends very 
largely upon our ability to select animals with skill and 
judgment. In the discussion on heredity it was stated 
that the offspring inherit all of the characters of the race 
to which they belong. The offspring of given parentage, 
therefore, may be low, medium and high in any par- 
ticular character in which improvement is sought. In 
the discussion on Mendel's law it was also indicated that 
the best way to secure a given type so that it would be 
transmitted with reasonable certainty from parent to 
offspring was to select for mating those animals possess- 
ing in the most perfect form the characters which we 
wish to secure in the offspring. Selection is, therefore, 
the all-powerful agent in controlling the characters of 
farm animals generally. 

Objects of selection. — As has been suggested, the 
necessity for selection is based on the tendency of off- 
spring generally to vary, in all important characters, 
from their parents. Inferior animals should be eliminated 
from breeding, as they tend to reproduce themselves. 
On the other hand, superior offspring should be selected 
for breeding, as they also tend to reproduce themselves 
and to show still further improvement. Thus one of 
the primary objects of selection is to improve the an- 
cestry, preventing, so far as possible, the birth of unwel- 
come individuals not suited to the purposes of man. The 
animal breeder can prevent the birth of unprofitable 
individuals approximately in proportion as he is skilled 
in selection. 

Among our farm animals, especially meat-producing 
animals and males, more individuals are born than can 

56 



58 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

be used in breeding, so that it becomes necessary to 
reduce the number. A second object of selection, there- 
fore, is to reduce numbers. This affords the breeder an 
opportunity to influence the character and type of his 
animals, as only superior ones should be retained for 
breeding purposes. While selection is a very important 
factor in establishing type, it does not greatly reduce 
variability. This necessitates watchfulness on the part 
of the breeder, as he must eliminate all animals from 
breeding that do not meet the requirements of the 
given type. 

Standards of excellence in selection. — The breeder 
must have a definite ideal or a standard of excellence 
for his guidance in selecting his breeding animals. 
Among the great run of variation which every breeder 
will encounter, he must know which are useful, which 
are fanciful and which are mere novelties. The standard 
must not be altered by fancy considerations or by novel- 
ties, no matter how curious or attractive. 

The standard must be fixed in advance. It should be 
wisely chosen in the light of what is needed. D.ue con- 
sideration should be given to every influence. Once 
chosen, however, the standard should be preserved un- 
changed. Blood lines must be kept pure, not only 
within the breed, but within the strain or family with 
which we are working. This is emphasized by the law 
of ancestral heredity and by the fact that no matter 
what the parent, the offspring tends strongly toward 
the average of the race to which it belongs. 

History of the breeds. — When the breeder selects the 
individuals that are to reproduce, it must be done in the 
light of all the knowledge available. He must know the 
weak characters as well as the strong points of the breed 
with which he is working. This necessitates a thorough 
knowledge of the history of the breed. The absence of 
such intelligence is responsible for many failures. 

This is well illustrated in the case of the Percheron 



SELECTION IN ANIMAL BREEDING 59 

draft horse and in Berkshire swine. Most of the breeds 
of draft horses, particularly those native to the British 
Islands, are rather heavy in bone. This has led the Eng- 
lish draft-horse breeders to select for refinement in bone. 
Not infrequently a Percheron draft horse breeder selects 
his animals on the same basis, which results in too light 
a bone and lack of endurance in the limbs. The explana- 
tion of this is that the light horse of Arabia played a very 
important part in the formation of the Pei'fcheron breed, 
which, therefore, is predisposed to light bone. The 
same is true of Berkshire swine. This breed of swine 
resulted largely from crossing the small, refined, quick- 
maturing Neapolitan hog upon the large English hog; 
and many are the Berkshire herds that have been ruined 
by selecting for breeding purposes the most attractive, 
refined and quick-maturing pigs. 

Breed peculiarities. — Not only is a knowledge of the 
history essential, but one must be familiar with the 
inherent faults of the breed with which he is working. 
He needs to know, for example, that the Clydesdale is 
often deficient in the rear ribs, which gives the body a 
rangy appearance ; that the Shire is often rather straight 
in the pastern, with heels low and flat ; and that the 
Belgian is often criticized for lack of substance in the 
bones of the legs. 

The breeder of Jersey dairy cattle should realize in 
advance that individuals are often extremely delicate, 
and the Holstein-Friesian breeder should know that the 
breed is rather rough, possessing a short tail. He who 
expects to breed Shorthorns needs to know that the breed 
is of many types, varying widely in excellence, while the 
Galloway breeder should not be surprised at consider- 
able roughness, particularly in aged animals. 

When breeding swine it is important to know that the 
Berkshire is naturally deficient in ham, and the Poland 
China in the shoulder; that the Chester White is a bit 
coarse in the bone ; and that the Duroc-Jersey is uneven 



60 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

in type. These and the numerous other breed peculiar- 
ities, both desirable and undesirable, should be in the 
mind of the breeder before he begins his breeding opera- 
tions. 

Vigor, longevity and fertility. — We are so interested 
in securing a desired type or character that we often 
operate against valuable physical qualities, such as gen- 
eral thrift, endurance and fertility. This is best illus- 
trated in th« case of swine, although true of farm 
animals generally. Since the early-maturing, heavy- 
fleshed swine win in the show ring, they are selected for 
breeding. Such animals are often so refined that they 
lack vigor and fertility. Under such practice it is not 
surprising that many of our breeds of meat-producing 
animals lack vigor and longevity as well as fertility. 

Contrast with this the endurance and prolificacy of a 
few individuals that developed under more natural con- 
ditions. The noted Angus cow Old Granny (No. i m 
Angus Herd Book) produced 25 calves, the last one m 
the 29th year of her life, and she lived to the ripe old 
age of 36 years. The famous English Thoroughbred 
mare. Old Fanny Cook, produced 15 foals, giving birth 




Fig. 19 — Shropshire Sheep Uniform in Type 



SELECTION IN ANIMAL BREEDING 6l 

to twins at 22 years of age, and she lived to be t,t, years 
old. From a profitable point of view, the importance 




Fig. 20 — Brown Swiss Herd True to Type 

of selecting- to promote such physical properties, need 
not be dwelt upon. 

Large numbers promote uniformity. — Since our farm 
animals are so variable, in all important characters, large 
numbers are necessary in order to provide sufficient ma- 
terial to secure uniformity in type. This was suggested 
in our study of heredity, where it was stated that the 
offspring inherit all of the characters of his race. Sup- 
pose that we have a small uniform herd of even very 
exceptional animals — say, four cows and a bull. Since 
the offspring vary throughout the limits of the race, we 
would find it difficult to preserve even a single character 
on a uniform basis from generation to generation ; and 
the herd once exceptional and uniform would rapidly 
lose its identity. 

In this connection the practice to pursue will depend 
entirely upon the conditions. Thus the dairy breeder 
possessing a common herd of cattle varying in produc- 
tivity, some individuals scarcely paying for their keep, 
while others are paying a good profit, is often at a loss 
to know what disposition to make of the inferior in- 



62 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

dividuals, particularly if they are regular breeders. In 
this case the inferior animals should be eliminated, even 
though the number of animals in the herd be materially 
reduced, as such individuals tend to reproduce others of 
their kind. 

The exceptional breeding animal. — Of even greater 
importance than uniformity in type, large numbers are 
absolutely necessary to secure the maximum value of 
the exceptional breeder. This is significant, since the 
excellence of any herd or breed is usually due to a iew 
exceptional breeders. We have' examples of this on 
every hand. The Hambletonian family of Standardbred 
trotting horses owes its high speed development to a 
very few exceptional animals descending from Hamble- 
tonian lo and his noted son George Wilkes. Of the 
thousands of Standardbred stallions recorded in Wal- 
lace's Stud Book, there are but ii with 150 or more 
performing offspring to their credit ; that is, offspring 
that have trotted a mile in 2 130 or better, or paced one 
in 2:25 or better. Now, of these 11 stallions, five are 
sons of George Wilkes and three are grandsons, while 
all are sons, grandsons or great-grandsons of Hamble- 
tonian 10, with all but one in the paternal line. In a 
similar manner, the Hal family of Standardbred pacers 
descended from Tom Hal, the Morgan family descended 
from Justin Morgan, and the American saddler descended 
from Denmark. 

Equally as good illustrations of the value of the excep- 
tional breeder and the importance of large numbers is 
found among dairy cattle. The De Kol strain of Hol- 
stein-Friesian dairy cattle owes its high milk and butter 
fat production to a very few exceptional animals 
descending from De Kol 2d. Of the thousands of bulls 
recorded in the Holstein-Friesian Herd Book, there are 
but five with 100 or more advanced register daughters 
to their credit ; that is, daughters capable of making the 
requirements for admission to the advanced register 



SELECTION IN ANIMAL BREEDING 63 

— producing 12 pounds of butter fat per week at 5 years 
of age. These five bulls are sons, grandsons or great- 
grandsons of the phenomenal cow, De Kol 2d. While 
such remarkable breeding records depend on oppor- 
tunity, it serves to illustrate the importance of having 
large numbers of animals available with which to mate 
such exceptional breeders in order to secure maximum 
advantage. 

Comparative value of sire and dam. — Considering the 
offspring of a single mating, neither parent has any par- 
ticular advantage over the other, and both are prac- 
tically equal in controlling the characters of the offspring. 
On the other hand, the sire has a decided advantage over 
the dam in that he can influence large numbers in a 
breeding season, whereas the dam can control but one, 
or at most a few, as is the same of swine. The real dif- 
ference, therefore, is one of numbers. 

This principle is well illustrated in the case of the 11 
Standardbred stallions referred to above, each with 150 
or more performing offspring to his credit, whereas there 
are but few mares that have 10 or more performing off- 
spring in the list. The Holstein-Friesian bull. Lord 
Netherland De Kol, has 120 advanced register daughters, 
whereas Aaltje Salo 5th's Netherland, with eight ad- 
vanced register daughters, is the leading cow of the breed 
in the number of performing offspring to her credit (1913). 

Influence of the sire. — From the foregoing it is evident 
that the upper limit of the sire is comparatively very high 
and the dam very low. The statement is often made 
that the sire is half the herd, whereas he is far more than 
that. He is one-half the herd the first generation, three- 
quarters the second, seven-eighths the third and fifteen- 
sixteenths the fourth. So powerful is the influence of 
the sire that if careful selection be maintained for a few 
generations, he will mold the character of the entire herd. 
This fact should warn us of the necessity of exercising 
extreme care in the selection of the sire. 



64 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 




Fig. 21 — Poland-China Sow of Good Type 



The great influence of the sire is of advantage to the 

practical breeder, as he 
can improve his herd 
cheaply by the use of a 
good sire. Possibly the 
beginner with limited 
means should procure a 
number of rather plain 
females and a male of as 
good quality as he can 
afford, rather than to 
start with a small herd of good females and a male of 
fair quality. 

Suitability for mating. — Two animals to be suited for 
mating should be as nearly alike in general physical 
characters as it is possible to obtain. Since no two 
animals are exactly alike, we must strike an average 
between the characters of the parents and what we 
desire to get in the offspring. It is a serious but com- 
mon error to suppose that the bad points of one parent 
can be overcome by good characters in the -mate. The 
foundation of successful breeding lies in the mating of 
two animals each of which is as nearly perfect as pos- 
sible. When the offspring shows good qualities, the 
mating of the parents is considered a fortunate nick. The 
success or failure of the breeder often depends on his 
ability to discover these nicks and to make use of them. 
Some persons become very skilled in these, matters. 



CHAPTER VII 
UNIT OF SELECTION— CHARACTER 

The unit of selection is not the individual, but some 
particular attribute or character of the individual. Thus, 
hi the selecting of dairy cattle for breeding purposes, 
capacity to secrete milk is one of the chief characters 
sought ; in selecting beef cattle, ability to fleshen rapidly ; 
in selecting draft horses, v^eight ; and in selecting swine 
for breeding, capacity to fatten rapidly is one of the 
chief characters taken into account. Of course, in each 
case, many other factors or characters must be con- 
sidered, as certain characters are more or less dependent 
one upon the other. 

Character defined. — In common usage the term "char- 
acter" is loosely applied and has a variety of meanings. 
When one animal differs from another, we say he has 
different characters. Thus we say of one horse that he 
has speed, and of another that he has not speed ; whereas 
both have some speed, but only one has enough to be 
worthy of note. What we really mean, therefore, is 
that the character, speed, differs in the degree of develop- 
ment in the two animals. Now, when the speed has been 
improved, we speak of introducing a new character, 
whereas the improvement simply consisted of modifying 
a character already present. 

Such modification or development may be brought 
about by intensifying useful characters or by the sub- 
ordination of those that are less desirable. The fact that 
characters do not differ in kind, but only in degree, must 
be kept clearly in the mind of the breeder when selecting 
animals for breeding. The term character may be 
defined, therefore, as consisting of one of those details 
of form or function which, taken together, constitute the 
individual animal. 

65 



66 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

Germinal, acquired and congenital characters. — At- 
tempts have been made to group characters mto classes 
according to their mode of origin. Best usage warrants 
defining germinal characters as those having their origin 
in the germ plasm itself, as in the case of white, short- 
haired guinea pigs descending from dark, short-haired 
and white, long-haired guinea pigs (p. 47). Acquired 
characters are defined as those that originate within the 
individual under suitable environment, as the increased 
speed of the race horse, due to continuous training. 
Congenital characters are defined as those arising within 
the individual also, and usually in spite of anything it 
can do to prevent them, such as parental disease, the result 
of uterine infection ; unsoundness in horses, the result of in- 
herited weakness ; and the like. However, it is often dif- 
ficult to difl^er.entiate between these three groups, as the 
mode of origin cannot always be determined with certainty. 

Correlated characters. — In our selection to improve 
desirable characters or to subdue those that. are unde- 
sirable we should keep in mind the fact that certain 
characters seem to be so correlated as to move together, 
while others move in opposite directions, and still others 
move independent of each other. For example, there 
is a high degree of correlation between a capacious udder 
and high milk production, while there is a negative 
correlation between the amount of milk produced and 
the per cent of fat that it contains ; for, as the milk 
production increases, the per cent of fat usually de- 
creases. On the other hand, there is entire lack of 
correlation between the color of a cow and the amount 
of milk she gives, since black cows give as much and 
no more milk than white cows. 

This relationship is one of degree only, but it often 
becomes an important factor in selecting breeding 
animals. For example, delicacy is often associated with 
refinement, and sterility with early maturity. Thus, 
continued selection for refined, early-maturing animals 




UNIT OF SELECTION — CHARACTER 6/ 

often leads to barrenness and lack of vigor. In like man- 
ner the exceeding fineness of the Merino fleece has been 
attained at the cost of diminished vigor. There is a high 
degree of correlation between 
excessive fatness and sterility 
in both sexes, as well as be- 
tween fatness and troubles at- 
tending parturition in the fe- 
male once she becomes preg- 
nant. We have numerous ex- 
amples of such relationships, 
both good and bad, and the 
breeder will do well to ac- 
quaint himself with the more 
important of them before he F'g. 22— shire stallion -'lockinge 

, , . , , . . , HiNGlST" 

selects his breedmg anmials. 

Limit selection to useful characters. — In each of our 
breeds of farm animals we have so increased the number 
of characters that we are no longer able to find a very 
large proportion of them in any one Individual. In 
selecting our breeding animals we are often obliged to 
take those possessing some undesirable characters in 
order to get sufficient animals that meet the require- 
ments. This makes real progress very slow. 

Among the great number of characters which every 
breed presents, the breeder should know which are use- 
ful. He should decide upon a very limited number of 
these and put all of his energies into their improvement. 
This will have the decided advantage in that they will 
be found in a large number of animals, and he can, 
therefore, make his selection more rigid for the particular 
characters in question. A little effort in this direction 
would soon work wonders, as is exemplified in the speed 
of the trotting horse, where the time has been reduced 
from 2 :48>4 in 1810 to i :54^ in 1913. In this case speed 
alone was the requirement. Even more striking results 
have been attained with Holstein-Friesian cattle, where 



68 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



the butter fat yielded in seven days has been increased 
from 21.2 pounds in 1894 to 35.3 pounds in 1913. In this 
case ability to produce butter fat was the requirement. 
Base selection on limited number of characters. — As 
suggested in the case of the trotting horse and dairy 
cow, where we base selection on one point, improvement 
comes rapidly. Of course the particular character in- 
volved depends on many subordinate factors, such as 
vigor, capacity, endurance and the like, but all unessen- 




Fic. 23 — Dutch Belted Herd of Excellent Type and Characteristic Markings 

tial points, as size, style, action and conformation, have 
been disregarded for the one object — speed in the trotter 
and high milk and butter fat production in the cow. 

On the other hand, difficulties in selection increase 
rapidly with the increase in number of factors on which 
selection is based. Let us assume a case where two 
characters are involved. If one of the required factors 
can be found in one-half of the individuals, then one-half 
of the animals are available for breeding. To this let us 



UNIT OF SELECTION CHARACTER 69 

add a second character that can be found in one-third 
of the individuals. Now, the probability of finding the 
two characters in the same individual becomes -j^^ x % or 
Yq, so that but one animal in six meets the requirements. 
This is particularly true of characters that do not cor- 
relate, as color and milk production, or color and tend- 
ency to fleshen rapidly. Notwithstanding this fact, 
many of our breeds exhibit just such handicaps as is 
illustrated in the black color and white belt, a breed re- 
quirement of Dutch Belted cattle and Hampshire swine 
(Figs. 23 and 24). 

Records of performance. — After deciding upon the 
economic characters we are to strive to improve, a record 
of these characters should be kept, as such is invaluable 
in mating our animals. Such records are essential to 
highest development, as we are unable to tell what an 
animal can do simply by a physical examination. No 
one is so base as to claim to be able to tell how fast a 
horse can trot, or how heavy a load he can draw by 
looking at him, likewise no one can tell how much milk 
and butter fat a cow will produce, or how much wool a 
sheep will grow, on the basis of a physical examination alone. 

With a record of the economic character in question 
available for each individual, we are able to distinguish 
the high-producing from the medium and low-perform- 
ing animals. Such records enable us to mate the best 
with the best, and thus improve the particular character 
with which we are working. The remarkable success 
attained in breeding dairy cattle in recent years has been 
due in a large measure to the fact that the breeders kept 
a record of the milk and butter fat produced. Thus the 
breeders were able to know for a certainty, not only the 
records of the animals they mated, but the records of 
their ancestors as well. With most of our breeds of 
farm animals the difficulty comes in devising a scheme 
for measuring the particular characters for which the 
animals are produced. 



70 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



Actual breeding test valuable. — In selecting breeding 
animals we are confronted with the fact that certain 
individuals transmit their qualities with a high degree 
of certainty while others do not. This Is all the more 

confusing because the ex- 
ceptional breeder is not 
necessarily the excep- 
tional individual. Neither 
Hambletonian lo nor 
De Kol 2d were re- 
markable performers in 
themselves, although the 
former founded a great 
family of trotting horses, 
while the latter is the 
ancestress of the most 
cows the world has ever 




Fig. 24 — Hampshire Sow with Character- 
istic Markings 

remarkable strain of milk 



seen. 

The only method by which we can ascertain the actual 
breeding value of an animal is by a breeding test. In 
testing young females they should be mated with a male 
of known worth, or in testing a young male he should 
be mated with females whose breeding value is well 
known. The offspring of young animals thus mated will 
indicate which should be retained and which should be 
eliminated, although in the case of dairy cows it is neces- 
sary to have the performance of the offspring before we 
can know for a certainty. To save time, the young 
animals may be tested at a comparatively early age, es- 
pecially males. The common practice of putting a new, 
young sire into full service in a large herd, without a 
test of his breeding capacity, cannot be too strongly 
condemned, no matter what his individuality or his 
pedigree. 

Breeders' fancy points. — Many of our leading breeders 
have adopted breed standards that operate as a check 
upon the maximum development of useful characters. A 



UNIT OF SELECTION — CHARACTER 7I 

very good example of this is observed in the color mark- 
ings of Dutch Belted cattle, already mentioned. Accord- 
ing to this requirement every cow must first have a 
white belt about the body, which certainly adds nothing 
to her ability to produce milk. Many high-producing 
cows are eliminated from breeding simply because they 
are deficient in this character. Possibly this serves to 
keep the breed behind its competitors as milk-producing 
animals. 

The same principle is involved in nearly all of our 
leading breeds, as their standard of perfection calls for 
similar fancy points. Thus the Clydesdale and English 
Shire draft horse must have long hairs growing from the 
back of the cannons and fetlocks; chestnut color is 
favored among Suffolk draft horses and Hackney coach 
horses; the Holstein-Friesian cow must have a large 
escutcheon, a long tail and be black and white in color; 
the Jersey cow must have a black tongue ; the Ayrshire 
cow must have characteristically shaped horns and a 
straight back from base of horn to tail head ; and Hamp- 
shire swine must be black in color with a white belt, 
while Poland China and Berkshire swine must be black 
in color with six white points, as well as free from curl- 
ing hair along the back. Such fancy points add nothing 
to the usefulness of the individual ; they simply serve 
to complicate selection and act as a check upon maxi- 
mum development of economic characters. 

Fashionable breeding. — It often happens in the careers 
of a breed that fashionable strains or families make their 
appearance. Such families may owe their reputation to 
certain notable animals, or they may result from the 
activity of some promoter, and the popularity may, or 
may not be due to real merit. For a time animals be- 
longing to such families command a high price, and not 
infrequently many small breeders become actively in- 
terested, in the belief that they can make a large sum 
of money and sell out before the popularity wanes. They 




72 



UNIT OF SELECTION CHARACTER 73 

often pay a very large sum of money for an animal to be 
placed in a small herd where there is utter lack of oppor- 
tunity. Under such conditions the breeder seldom 
realizes his money even though the individual animal 
may be an excellent one. It will be to the financial ad- 
vantage of the small breeder, as well as to the econ- 
omical advantage of the breed, for him to handle the 
best animals within his reach, and leave to the large 
breeder, with every advantage at his command, the pro- 
motion of fashionable strains. 

Passing fads. — The breeder's work is often compli- 
cated by fads and fancies of the public. A good illustra- 
tion is observed in case of the shape and size of hen's 
eggs. Some markets, especially New York City, pay 
more for white eggs, while other markets, as Boston, 
pay more for dark eggs ; some markets demand a 
roundish tgg, while others prefer those of oval 
shape. The same principle is involved in many other 
characters, such as action and color among horses, and 
the like. This is a serious consideration, as the breeder 
must supply the demand or his products will remain 
unsold. Since the breeder must sell his products or go 
out of business, there is nothing left for him to do but 
supply the demands of passing fads and fancies with as 
little destruction to his breeding animals as possible. 

Such demands can often be met by training, fitting and 
conditioning, especially in cases like the action and car- 
riage of horses. A passing fad can often be supplied by 
the sire, thus enabling the breeder to retain his female 
stock. No matter how pressing the fad, a few of the 
original breeding animals should be retained as a pro- 
tection against the day when the particular character 
involved shall no longer be in demand. 



CHAPTER VIII 
BASIS OF SELECTION— VARIATION 

In the discussion of heredity it was stated that in the 
main offspring resemble parents, but in an exact sense 
the new individual is never like either parent. This 
variation between parent and offspring is at once the 
hope and despair of the breeder, who seeks to hold fast 
to whatever he has found that is good, and at the same 
time tries to find something better. The practical 
breeder must keep clearly in mind the very important 
fact that offspring are exceedingly, variable, and while 
a few may be superior to their parents, more will be 
inferior to them. In order to improve or even maintain 
our animals in their present excellence we must reject 
those offspring that are inferior and select for mating 
those that are superior to their parents. 

Variation general among farm animals. — The most 
invariable thing about living beings is their variability. 
Not only are no two animals equal, but no two characters 
are exactly alike. To those unfamiliar with sheep, each 
animal of a flock may look exactly like the others, yet 
the trained eye readily recognizes differences arid can 
describe each so that those with equal training may 
recognize them. These differences extend to all char- 
acters. Two cows of like breeding may differ widely 
in the richness of their milk as well as in the amount 
produced ; two horses of the same breed may differ in 
conformation, action and pulling power; two steers of 
like breeding differ in their ability to fatten, and the meat 
may also differ, the loin of one being fine and tender 
while the other may be coarse in grain. Sheep, swine 
and poultry differ similarly. 

Variation basis of improvement. — If characters were 



BASIS OF SELECTION — ^VARIATION 



75 



absolutely fixed and unchangeable, then no improvement 
could be secured. The richness of milk as well as the 
amount produced could neither be increased nor dimin- 
ished, and the egg-laying capacity of hens would remain 
constant from generation to generation, and the off- 




FiG. 26 — Variation Among Light Horses 



Shetland pony. 
Thoroughbred. 
American saddler. 



Arabian. 

Standardbred. 

Hackney. 



76 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

spring would be no better or poorer than the parent. 
As it is, with variability everywhere, our animals are 
both capable of improvement and liable to decline, since 
both are the logical consequence of free variability. It 
is obvious that a high degree of variability is favorable 
to advancement, as it gives free materials with which 
to use selection to advantage. Since variation is the 
controlling factor in the improvement, as well as the 
degeneration of our farm animals, we should make a care- 
ful study of the kinds, as well as the nature, the extent 
and the causes that control its appearance and determine 
its permanency. 

Nature of variation. — While there is much confusion 
among breeders, both plant and animal, as to the nature 
of variation, there are two kinds that the practical 
breeder must keep clearly in mind. In our discussion 
of the character as the unit of selection, it was shown 
that to be sure of the breeding capacity of an animal, 
we must have, not only a record of the performance, but 
a record of the breeding capacity as well. The state- 
ments there made carried the suggestion that a record 
of performance was not sufficient data to judge an 
animal's breeding capacity, as the offspring of some 
individuals are uniformly good, while the offspring of 
animals apparently as good are uniformly inferior. 

In other words, some individuals transmit their good 
qualities to their offspring, while others apparently do 
not. Further, some animals transmit the ability to show 
still further improvement under suitable environment, 
while others do not transmit such ability to their off- 
spring. Thus we have two kinds of animals — one class 
transmitting its good qualities, however attained, and a 
second class that does not transmit them. These two 
classes of animals give us the distinction between the 
two classes of variations. Thus we have one class of 
variation that is passed down from generation to genera- 
tion, and another class which is not thus handed down 



BASIS OF SELECTION — VARIATION JJ 

from parent to offspring. The class that is not trans- 
mitted is called non-inheritable variation, w^hile the class 
that is transmitted is called inheritable variation, although 
the former is often called somatic variation and the 
latter germinal variation. 

Non-inheritable variations. — From the breeder's point 
of view^ the distinction betw^een non-inheritable and in- 
heritable variations is significant. The former, while of 
inestimable value to the individual, is of no consequence 
in breeding. Whether desirable or undesirable such 
variations have no opportunity to affect the breed as a 
whole either favorably or unfavorably. On the other 
hand, from the standpoint of economic production alone, 
non-inheritable variations may be of prime importance. 
Good examples are observed in the case of high-produc- 
ing cows in a commercial dairy where no attempt is 
made to raise the calves, as well as in the case of high 
egg-laying hens on a poultry farm where all of the eggs 
are sold for consumption. Thus, where the product of 
the individual is the sole object sought, non-inheritable 
variations are as important as inheritable. In this con- 
nection it should be noted that frequently the very 
phenomenal producers are of the former sort, for rarely 
do they transmit their qualities to their offspring; par- 
ticularly is this true in case the product is of such a 
nature as to draw heavily upon the constitutional vigor, 
as in the case of egg-laying hens. 

Inheritable variations. — As this term is used to denote 
all variations, whether large or small and of whatever 
origin, that are transmitted from parent to offspring and 
from generation to generation, it is obvious that such 
variations are of prime importance to the breeder, as they 
are destined in time to exert a more or less permanent in- 
fluence upon the breed, whether for good or evil. True, 
it may not be possible for the breeder to distinguish 
between inheritable and non-inheritable variations at the 
time of their appearance. He may have to try them out 



78 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



to differentiate between them, but such is the case in 
all forms of breeding, as has been clearly illustrated in 
the discussion of Mendel's law. It is this that makes 
records of performance, both in production and breeding 
capacity, so essential to successful breeding. 




Fig. 27- 



Percheron. 
Shire. 



-Variation Among Heavy Horses 
Suffolk Punch 



Belgian. 
Clydesdale. 



BASIS OF SELECTION VARIATION 79 

The breeder must not become confused by the end- 
less number of variations, involving all shades of dif- 
ferences, that present themselves to his view as gen- 
erations come and go. He must learn to consider them, 
with the full realization that few will have a permanent 
influence upon the breed. He must become skilled, not 
alone in detecting useful characters, but those that are 
connected with transmission, since they are to mold the 
type. This calls for extended and careful observations 
as well as the keeping of accurate records of production 
and breeding capacity. 

Variations distinguished from the nature of the char- 
acters involved. — The breeder can gain an idea of the 
nature of variations by a careful consideration of the 
characters involved. Certain distinctions exist, which, 
if overlooked, will result in more or less confusion in 
selecting breeding animals. For sake of clearness useful 
characters may be divided into four groups : 

1. Quantitative variations.— Th.Qse relate to differences 
in form and size. They are the simplest of variations, 
and we observe evidence of them on every hand. For 
example, two horses of the same breed may be practically 
alike, except one may be large and the other small ; even 
on the same horse one foot may be larger than the others, 
the two ears may not be of the same size, one eye may 
be larger than the other, and so on — all variations in 
size. In a similar manner, one cow may have a sym- 
metrical udder with four full quarters and with the teats 
well placed, while the other cow may have a very ir- 
regular udder with the hindquarters larger than the fore 
ones, and with the teats very unevenly placed — all varia- 
tions in form independent of size. 

2. Qualitative variations. — Such relate to differences in 
quality. These are distinct from size and form and refer 
to the composition of the body, or to the inherent nature 
of the character involved. While not so simple as quan- 
titative, evidences of qualitative variations are also very 



60 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

abundant. For example, of all the cows of a given 
breed, no two yield milk containing the same amount 
of fat ; in fact, the individual cow varies widely from day 
to day in the percentage of fat contained in the milk. 
Of two steers of like breeding, the meat of one may be 
fine in grain, high in flavor, tender and juicy; while the 
meat of the other may be of coarse grain, tasteless, tough 
and dry. The same is true of all meat-producing animals. 
Again, the quality of no two horses is alike. One has 
coarse, rough hair, thick hide and heavy, coarse bone ; 
the other has smooth, soft hair, soft pliable hide and 
fine smooth bone. While qualitative variations are not 
so easily detected, as a rule, they are of greater sig- 
nificance to the breeder than are those of either size or form. 

3. Functional variations. — Such relate to deviations in 
the normal activity of the various organs or parts of the 
body, such as muscular activity, glandular secretions and 
the like. This group refers to variations in what the 
animal can do, and may be quantitative or qualitative. 

Each organ or part of the body has its own work to do, 
which is essentially dift'erent from that of any other organ 
or part. The activities of these various organs are not 
constant but exceedingly variable. Such deviations are 
of prime importance to the breeder who is interested in 
increasing the efficiency of the organs or parts as well 
as in their permanent improvement. While functional 
variations are often complex, in that a number of char- 
acters are likely to be involved, yet illustrations are ob- 
served on every hand. Among cows of the same breed- 
ing, no two give the same amount of milk; in fact, the 
individual cow does not give the same amount from day 
to day. Likewise, animals vary in fertility, the average 
cow or horse giving birth to but few, while, as we have 
seen, the Angus cow. Old Granny, produced 25 young, 
while the Thoroughbred mare. Old Fanny Cook, gave 
birth to 15 foals. These animals both lived to a ripe old 
age, indicating great vitality of all the organs. 



BASIS OF SELECTION — VARIATION 8l 

4. Variations in pattern. — These have to do w^ith re- 
peated parts, such as extra teats on cattle and sw^ine, 
extra toes in cats and dogs, and the like. This group 
of variations is not common among animals, but evi- 
dences are everywhere observed among plants, as stool- 
ing of v^heat, oats, corn and the like. 

In selecting animals to improve definite qualities, the 
breeder should distinguish betw^een these four groups, 
as it w^ill give him a clearer idea of the nature of varia- 
tions and how to take advantage of them in his endeavor 
to improve animals for the service of man. 

Further, it is important to remember that each group 
may be of the non-inheritable 

sort, and thus affect the in- _,—_-, -«^i^^^ 

dividual only ; or each may 
be inheritable, and thus influ- 
ence the herd or breed. 

Degrees of variations.— 
Animals are not only exceed- 
ingly variable, but there is 
great difference in the degree fig. 28-KAMBouiLLET k^™ -uhio 
which one individual devi- ^°^" 

. 1 A 1 Fins wool type 

ates from another. A clear 

understanding of this is necessary to gain an idea of the 
nature of variations, and hence to be able to take advan- 
tage of such deviations as do appear. 

Continuous variations. — Darwin supposed that varia- 
tions were by nature continuous, and that new forms 
originated by the gradual accumulation of very small 
differences through a long period of selection. Accord- 
ing to this theory if all of the individuals that ever lived 
could be so arranged as to bring nearest together those 
that are nearest alike, it would then be found that they 
would grade into one another by insensible differences. 
For a long time such was commonly assumed to be the 
case, and no doubt is true of much of the variation among 
our animals. This, of course, means that the breeder 




82 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

must exercise great caution in selection so as to take 
advantage of each slight improvement, as v^ell as to 
eliminate undesirable forms, even though the difference 
be small. 

Discontinuous variations. — It is now definitely known 
that not all variations are continuous, but that many 
are discontinuous; that is, the new individual differs 
from the parent by a wide margin. According to this 
idea, we should not expect to find all nature united by 
insensible gradations. This class of variations is far 
more numerous than is commonly supposed, and our 
animals deviate widely often in the line of improvement, 
but possibly more often in the line of deterioration. This 
necessitates even greater vigilance on the part of the 
breeder. 

Mutations. — This term was formerly used to denote a 
wide and discontinuous deviation from the type ; in fact, 
forming a new type, which bred true from the beginning. 
The common example was the case of the peach tree 
bearing nectarines. At present there is a tendency to 
employ the term mutant to signify any variation, 
whether large or small and of whatever origin, that is 
transmitted from parent to offspring and from genera- 
tion to generation. In the latter sense it denotes prac- 
tically the same as inheritable and germinal variation. 

Sports. — Wide deviations from established types were 
noted by Darwin, who called them "sports." Some per- 
sons consider sports and mutants synonymous. How- 
ever, the term sport is used here to denote a sudden and 
wide departure from the normal type that is not trans- 
mitted from generation to generation. 

Abnormality. — This term is used to denote a variation 
of greater magnitude than a sport. An abnormal part 
is distinctly different from the rest of the species. It 
may be transmitted for a few generations, but will soon 
disappear because of lack of adaptation. 

Malformation. — A variation so great as to interfere 



BASIS OF SELECTION VARIATION 



«3 



,/^ 



with the usefulness of an animal is called a malforma- 
tion. Since the individual seldom reaches maturity such 
deviations are of no economic importance to the breeder. 

Monstrosity. — This term is used to denote a variation 
of so great a degree as to ren- 
der the life of the animal 
impossible, or possible for a 
short time only, such as an 
individual with two heads. 

These terms simply repre- 
sent increasing degrees of 
deviation from the normal 
type of the race. While ab- 
normalities, malformations 
and monstrosities are often 
of interest, they have no permanent value and the breeder 

should eliminate them at once. 



Fig. 29 — Rambouillet Ewe 
Fine v/ool type 



Distribution of Cows as 
TO Per Cent of Butter 
Fat 



V* 


Ft 


2.6 


1 


2.7 


2 


2.8 


1 


2.9 


5 


3.0 


16 


3.1 


20 


3.2 


43 


3.3 


40 


3.4 


51 


3.5 


39 


3.6 


29 


3.7 


26 


3.8 


19 


3.9 


13 


4.0 


9 


4.1 


5 


4.2 


2 


4.3 


2 


4.4 


1 




324 



cent, of fat called value =V. 
■[■cows in groups called frequency =F. 



Study of variation. — So 

universal is variability that 
when considering a large 
number of animals it is dif- 
ficult to compare individuals 
by the usual methods of ob- 
servation. Thus in a study 
of the quality of milk or the 
percentage of butter fat, 
taking a breed as a whole, it 
is difficult to determine 
whether advancement is 
being made from generation 
to generation, or indeed to 
determine with exactness 
whether the breed is hold- 
ing its advantage. This 
has led to the adoption of 
the statistical methods of 
study often called biometry. 



84 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



To illustrate the method let us make a study of butter 
fat among Holstein-Friesian cows, taking the semi-official 
records in volume 23 of the advanced register. The dif- 
ferent individuals differ greatly in the percentage of fat 
produced, and to obtain an idea of the rank it is necessary 
to group them according to the per cent of fat produced, 
as in the tabulation on preceding page showing distribu- 
tion of cows as to per cent of fat produced. 

Finding the type. — The distribution table shows a 
total of 324 cows, varying from 2.6 to 4.4 per cent of fat, 
with 3.4 the most common per cent. This most common 
value is called the mode. Thus we say the 3.4 per cent 
of fat is the mode for the semi-official Holstein-Friesian 
cows entered in volume 2^ of the advanced register. 

To find the type it is not sufficient to know the most 
common value, but the average value as well. The 

average value is called the 
Finding the Mean mean. The average per cent 

of fat yielded by the 324 
cows may be an entirely 
different value from the most 
common value. To ascertain 
this average value or mean 
multiply each group of the 
frequency distribution (F) 
by its corresponding value 
(V), add the results and 
divide by the total number 
of cows, as in the accom- 
panying tabulation showing 
method of finding the mean. 
This gives an average 
per cent of 3.44, differing 
slightly from 3.4, the most 
common value. In a similar 
manner the mode and mean may be determined for the 
flow of milk, and like characters that permit of definite 



v 


F 


FV 


2.6 


1 


2.6 


2.7 


2 


5.4 


2.8 


1 


2.8 


2.9 


5 


14.5 


3.0 


16 


48.0 


3.1 


20 


62.0 


3.2 


43 


137.6 


3.3 


40 


132.0 


3.4 


51 


173.4 


3.S 


39 


136.5 


3.6 


29 


104.4 


3.7 


26 


96.2 


3.8 


19 


72.2 


3.9 


13 


50.7 


4.0 


9 


36.0 


4.1 


5 


20.5 


4.2 


2 


8.4 


4.3 


2 


8.6 


4.4 


1 
324 


4.4 


1116.2 



1,116.2-7-324=3.44 mean = M. 



BASIS OF SELECTION — VARIATION 



85 



measurement. The mean or average value is usually 
accepted as the best representative of a typical individual. 
Variability or deviation from type. — In a critical study 
of variation we must determine the average deviation ; 
that is, the average tendency for each cow^ to deviate 
from the mean or average, v^hich is 3.44 per cent. From 
the mean the low^est cow^, which is 2.6 per cent, deviates 
.84; the next group of two cows each deviate .74, or a 
total deviation of 2 times .y /l — 1.48. Continue down the dis- 
tribution, and calculate the deviation of each group, then 
add all together to obtain the total amount by which 
all cows deviate from their average per cent of fat. Now, 
by dividing this amount by the number of cows, we shall 
obtain the average deviation of the cows, as in the tabula- 
tion showing method of finding average deviation. 

Finding Average Deviation 



v 


P 


V-M 


F (V-M) 


2.6 


1 


-.84 


0.84 


2.7 


2 


-.74 


1.48 


2.8 


1 


-.64 


0.64 


2.9 


5 


-.54 


2.70 


3.0 


16 


-.44 


7.04 


3.1 


20 


-.34 


6.80 


3.2 


43 


-.24 


10.32 


3.3 


40 


-.14 


5.60 


3.4 


51 


-.04 


2.04 


3.5 


39 


.06 


2.34 


3.6 


29 


.16 


4.64 


3.7 


26 


.26 


6.76 


3.8 


19 


.36 


6.84 


3.9 


13 


.46 


5.98 


4.0 


9 


.56 


5.04 


4.1 


5 


.66 


3.30 


4.2 


2 


.76 


1.52 


4.3 


2 


.86 


1.72 


4.4 


1 


.96 


0.96 




324 




76.56 



76.56 -7-324 =0.23 + = average deviation. 



This gives 0.23-)- as the average amount by which each 
cow deviates from the average. Thus it gives a good 
measure of the variability in this particular lot of cows. 



86 



BREEDING OF FARAI ANIMALS 



The mean and the average deviation give a very good 
measure of the type as well as its stability, and afford a 
very convenient basis for comparing one year's work 
with another or one generation of animals with another 
where large numbers of individuals are involved. 

Plotting a frequency curve. — Such frequency distribu- 
tions as the above gradually rise from the low value to 
the mode and then descend to the high value. This is 
best illustrated by a system of plotting in which the dis- 
tribution is put into the form of a curve known as a 
"frequency curve." 

To plot such a curve, rule a sheet of paper both ways, 
arranging the values along the bottom and the fre- 
quency distribution on the left, preferably standardizing 
it. Connect the points where the perpendicular lines 
from the values cross the horizontal lines from the fre- 
quencies with a curved line. This irregular line con- 
stitutes the frequency curve and gives a true picture of 
the variation that exists among cows in the per cent of 
butter fat produced, as shown in Fig. 30. In this case 
the curve is not smooth, due to lack of sufficient num- 
bers to make it regular and uniform. 



55 








































45 
40 
35 
30 
25 


















/ 


\ 


































1 




/ 


\ 


































/ 








\ 
































/ 








\ 
































/ 








































/ 












\ 
















15 












/ 
















\ 






















1 


















s 


\ 












5 










1 






















\ 














^ 


^ 


























\ 




— _ 






Z.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 5.Z 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 44 

Fig. 30 — Plotting a Frequency Curve 



CHAPTER IX 

SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 

Variations constitute the basis of all improvement as 
well as that of all decline. Because of this the breeder 
is especially interested in the causes of variations in 
animals, as well as in methods of their possible control. 
While exact causes are little understood, past experience 
has taught us that certain practices can be relied upon 
to give good results. The general causes of variations 
may be divided into two classes, those that arise within 
the body, largely in the form of inherited differences, 
and those that are external to the animal, such as dif- 
ferences in the environment. The breeder can influence 
the former but little, if at all ; while over the latter he 
has practically complete control. 

SOME EXTERNAL CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 

Everywhere about us we observe that animals of the 
same species vary widely according to the environment. 
The climate and the food, as well as favorable and un- 
favorable conditions, generally exert a profound influ- 
ence upon living beings. We can often tell the condi- 
tions under which an animal was grown simply by a 
physical examination. That the conditions in which an 
animal is obliged to live exert a direct effect upon his 
development is beyond question. 

In a general way our animals are the result of their 
environment, and improvement is possible only when the 
conditions of life are made more suitable. Good ex- 
amples are observed in the case of early maturity and 
increased fertility among cattle and swine. In nature 
the cow does not reach full maturity until five or six 

87 



OO BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

years of age; she does not breed until well along in 
years, and she usually gives birth to but few calves in 
her lifetime. On the other hand, when properly cared 
for, the cow may give birth to young before she is two 
years of age without injury to herself or the calf; she 
attains her growth at a much earlier period than in 
nature, and when properly managed may produce a num- 
ber of calves. 




Fig. 31 — Shropshire Ewe. Medium wool, mutton type. 



Swine show even greater improvement. In nature the 
sow gives birth to but one litter of one to four young 
each year, and it requires three to five years for these 
animals to attain full development, while under man's 
care the sow may annually give birth to two litters of 
six to ten young each, and in six months the pigs attain 



SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 89 

sufficient development to be bred again, as well as to be 
marketed to advantage. 

Climate and locality. — In nature there is a correlative 
influence between the climate and the kind of animals 
that exist under it. The characters that are most often 
affected are those that have to do with size and the 
external covering of the animal. The natural relation 
of climate to size is that animals inhabiting cold climates 
are usually small as compared with those of the same 
species inhabiting warm climates. When animals are 
exposed to cold, damp weather the hair becomes long 
and thick. In some instances the exposure produces a 
double coat of hair — an upper one being long and wavy 
and an under one short, fine and furlike. Galloway cattle 
furnish a good example. 

Formerly we were accustomed to associating a high 
degree of constitutional vigor with animals that were 
developed in rather cold or severe climates. It was also 
stated that they could not be transplanted to another 
climate without impairing their vigor. Experience dis- 
proves this, as many animals show ease of acclimation 
to wide changes of climatic conditions. There are 
numerous illustrations of where animals have been ex- 
ported from their own country to other countries and 
climates, and have shown as marked a degree of vigor 
as in their native land. In fact, in many cases they have 
shown marked improvement in constitutional vigor over 
the original animals. For example. Merino sheep were 
developed in the dry climate of the tablelands of Spain, 
where they were famous for the quality of their fleece. 
In the latter part of the eighteenth century they were 
exported to Germany, France and the United States. 
Although in each of these countries the climate is very 
different from that of Spain, yet the sheep rapidly im- 
proved in vigor and fleece covering until they far sur- 
passed the original Spanish animals. 

In like manner, Jersey and Guernsey cattle of the 



90 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

Channel Islands have been exported to England, Europe 
and to the United States. In each of these countries 
they have become perfectly acclimated and have shown 
no loss in constitutional vigor, and, in fact, they have 
improved wonderfully over the original cattle. 

While the influence of climate and locality is great and 
the factors at work are exceedingly complex, yet from 
a practical point of view we may consider the food supply 
and more favorable conditions generally, such as sufficient 
shelter, proper care, including training and developing, 
as the more important causes of variation. 

Care and management. — In the breeding of animals 
the conditions of environment are changed or enlarged 
by man, who provides his animals with favorable con- 
ditions. The improvement derived from proper care and 
management is not fully appreciated by the average 
breeder. The development attained by our high-class 
animals is largely due to the favorable conditions pro- 
vided by man. A good example is observed in the speed 
of the trotting horse. In 1810, Boston trotted a mile at 
Philadelphia in 2:485^. This was the fastest mile ever 
trotted in harness and was not exceeded for 16 years. 
In 1912 Uhlan trotted a mile at Memphis in i :58. 

The conditions under which these records were made 
are significant. Boston was in training but a few months 
each year and was not worked out as trotters are at 
present. At the time he made the memorable mile he 
was driven to a high, wooden-wheeled, steel-tired, 
straight-spindled clumsy cart ; the harness was heavy 
and ill adapted to trotting; and the track over which he 
was driven was not as well constructed as are present- 
day tracks. On the other hand, Uhlan was in training 
practically throughout the year ; he was perfectly worked 
out, and in prime physical condition; he was driven to a 
low, wire-wheeled, pneumatic-tired, ball-bearing, per- 
fectly balanced cart ; the harness was light and perfectly 
adapted ; and the track was the fastest in the world. 



SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 9I 

Food supply. — The food supply is of prime importance 
in effecting improvement among animals. No other con- 
ditions influence development to a greater extent. Large 
breeds are developed from small ones largely by increas- 




FiG. 32 — Belgian Mare "Bella" 

ing the food supply. In addition to the increase in size, 
there is also an increase in the constitutional vigor w^hen 
the animal is v^^ell fed. 

In order to secure increased development of all of the 
productive functions, the animal must be supplied w^ith 
more food than is required for the performance of the 
normal functions. A good example is observed in the 
increased yield of dairy cows. In the early days of 
official cow testing a weekly yield of 18 pounds of butter 
fat was considered exceptional. At the present time 
(1914) the record stands at 35.3 pounds of butter fat in 
seven days, practically double the record of a few years 
ago. Let us note the conditions under which these 
records were made. 



92 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

Formerly the cows on test received no special prepara- 
tion before calving or subsequently. The daily food con- 
sisted of a moderate amount of one or two kinds of con- 
centrates or grains, all the hay they would consume 
with the run of pasture when in season. During 
inclement weather the animals were stabled, but 
never blanketed. They were fed and milked twice 
daily. Contrast such conditions with present-day 
methods. The cows are especially prepared for 
the test and often excessively fat; they are closely 
stabled and often heavily blanketed; they are fed all of 
the food they will eat, often as high as 40 or more pounds 
of concentrates, consisting of a dozen foods variously 
mixed, in addition to all of the silage, roots, cabbage, 
clover and alfalfa hay they will consume, the total daily 
ration often exceeding 100 pounds of food. Further, the 
cows are fed and milked four times each day. 

Training and development. — Just how much of the in- 
creased speed of the trotter is due to training, to favor- 
able conditions and to breed improvement is an open 
question. Likewise, just how much of the improvement 
in dairy cows is due to special preparation and develop- 
ment, to favorable conditions, and to general improve- 
ment of the breed is a matter concerning which we lack 
sufficient data to answer with any degree of accuracy. 
Certain it is, however, not least of these factors is train- 
ing and developing. In fact, they are the chief agents 
in bringing out efficiency, otherwise we would never 
know the fastest trotting horse or the highest-producing 
cow. 

Training and developing are not only useful agents in 
bringing out differences in the capacity of our farm 
animals, but they must be continued to keep the animals 
up to maximum efficiency. Thus, if we wish to breed a 
strain of fast-trotting horses or of high-producing cows, 
we must not only train the horses and develop the cows 
during the formation of the stud or herd, but we must 



SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 93 

continue to train and develop them as long as we remain 
in the business. The same is true of most characters 
which the animal breeder is seeking to improve, and in 
this they differ from unit-characters, as color, presence 
or absence of horns on cattle and sheep, and the like. 
It was stated in our discussion of Mendel's law that once 
we obtained a pure color strain it would breed true from 
generation to generation. While sufficient evidence is 
lacking to say that such is not true of speed among 
trotters, pulling power among draft horses and high milk 
and butter fat production among cattle, yet the facts will 
certainly remain unknown unless the animals are trained 
and developed so as to bring out their maximum 
efficiency. 

Use and disuse. — It must be evident to all that use 
stimulates and disuse dwarfs the development of many 
organs. The training of the race horse and the develop- 
ing of the dairy cow are good examples of normal de- 
velopment, but by constant use it is possible to stimulate 
some organs beyond the normal. There are many ex- 
amples of this in the human family, such as the blind 
reading by the touch of the finger tips, the deaf carrying 
on conversation by watching the lips, and using the toes 
to write. This is putting parts to entirely new use and 
requires constant and painstaking effort to accomplish 
the task. 

That disuse dwarfs organs is well illustrated in the case 
of the disappearance of legs from snakes and from 
whales, the lessening of the wings in certain birds and 
the loss of toes in many mammals including the horse, 
the prototype being a five-toed animal. 

Injuries and mutilations. — Not infrequently injury to 
a part sets up cell division which results in a local growth 
to support the injured parts. In the horse such growths 
are spoken of as blemishes. Notwithstanding popular 
opinion, the breeding animal is none the worse for 
blemishes the result of accidental injury. 



94 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

Formerly there was much discussion among animal 
breeders as to the importance of mutilations, by which 
is meant the removal of parts after they have developed. 
The frequent appearance of tailless kittens gave credence 
to the belief that such mutilations were often transmitted, 
notwithstanding the fact that there is a breed of cats 
naturally tailless, which is no doubt responsible for the 
tailless kittens. For countless generations it has been 
the custom to remove the tails from lambs, with no signs 
of tailless sheep as the result, and from the remotest times 
the Jews have practiced circumcision, and are still at it. 

While of little interest to the breeder, male castration 
is a fertile cause of variation to the individual. In the 
castrated animal the general development of the head 
and neck will be arrested, he will remain lighter and finer, 
lacking the general coarseness of unaltered males. In 
fact, there is a profound difference in the development, 
extending to practically every character, the animal ap- 
proaching the general conformation of the female. Like- 
wise, females when deprived of their ovaries develop to 
some extent the characters of the male. 

Chemical agents. — While of little or no economic value, 
it is nevertheless interesting to note the influence of cer- 
tain dyes and chemical agents in producing variation. 
Long ago Darwin reported that swine feeding upon 
madder root possessed flesh abnormally red in color. 
Gage reports that feeding poultry vs^ith an aniline dye 
(Sodan Red III) resulted in eggs tinted with the red 
dye, and that chicks hatched from such eggs also were 
tinted. Riddle reports similar results with guinea pigs. 
In such cases the dye is held in suspension in the fats, 
and the coloring matter disappears with the fat. 

It has long been known that certain agents stimulated 
secretions and glandular activity. Hill reports that the 
injection into the veins of a thoroughly milked dairy cow 
of a saline extract of the pituitary bodies of cattle re- 
sulted in an immediate secretion of from 12 to 25 per 



SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 95 

cent of the normal flow, and the milk thus secreted con- 
tained 50 to 100 per cent more fat than normal stripping, 
although the flow was materially depressed at the next 
milking. 

Breeders' control of the external causes of variation. — 
Among successful animal breeders the opinion prevails 
that greatest development of useful characters and at- 
tributes can be attained only by providing animals with 
favorable conditions. Chief among these are suitable 
food; protection from cold, heat, enemies and all annoy- 
ing influences ; proper managemicnt ; and suitable 
preparation, including training and developing". So far 
as it is positively known, we have attained highest de- 
velopment of useful characters in no other manner. The 
breeder of animals should clearly understand this ; other- 
wise, he may be misled by the occasional individual that 
shows great improvement, as well as by those individuals 
that are exceedingly prepotent in transmitting their char- 
acters to their offspring. 

SOME INTERNAL CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 

There is little doubt but that the exact cause of the 
great bulk of variability is due to factors internal to the 
organism, mainly in the form of inherited tendencies. 
However, these internal influences are dependent, in 
part, at least, upon outside conditions for their oppor- 
tunity. The external conditions must be favorable in 
order to promote the development of inherited tendencies. 
Unfavorable conditions dwarf development, no matter 
how pure the heritage. 

Maturation a cause of variation. — The process by which 
the number of chromosomes in the germ cells — both male 
and female — is reduced to half is a preliminary step to fer- 
tilization is a very significant internal cause of variation. 

For the sake of clearness in illustrating the significance 
of this reduction, consider the case of a species in which 
four is the regular number of chromosomes, two of which 



96 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

are eliminated at maturation. It is obviously impossible 
to know which two of the four bodies will be preserved. 
Let us consider the four chromosomes of the female to 
bear numbers from one to four, any two of which may 
be eliminated. Likewise, consider the four chromosomes 
of the male to bear numbers five to eight, any two of 
which may be split off at maturation. In this case any 
one of the following combinations is equally as likely as 
any other to be preserved in the germ cells during 
maturation : 

Possible Chromosome Combination in Maturation 



Female germ cell 



Male germ cell 



1+2 2+3 

1+3 2+4 

1+4 3+4 



5+6 6+7 

5+7 6+8 

5+8 7+8 



Thus there are six possible combinations in a female 
of a species of four chromosomes. But our farm animals 
each possess 16 chromosomes in the germ cells, eight of 
which are eliminated at maturation. Calculated on the 
same basis, this would give 12,870* possible combinations 
in the maturation of the ovum. 

Reduction is similar in the male. While all four divi- 
sions of the spermatozoon remain functional, only one is 
utilized in fertilization, thus the possibilities are the same 
as in the female. 



*Suppose a female has 2 K chromosomes, of which half only are available, K 

|J_K 

Now the number of possible ways of selecting K among 2 K is ■ — , Thus in 

I K - I K 
case the number of chromes 5mes is 16 we have 

1 • 2 • 3 • 4 ■ 5 ■ 6 • 7 • 8 • 9 • 10 • 11 • 12 • 13 • 14 • IS • 16 



1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-1- 2 ■ 3 ■ 4 ■ 5 • 6 • 7 ■ 
Likewise the male chromosomes share similar possibilities. 



12,870 



SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 97 

Fertilization a cause of variation. — The process of fer- 
tilization in which the remaining chromosomes in the 
maturized germ cells flocculate to restore the original 
number is also an important internal cause of variation. 
Continuing w^ith the illustration, we now have six pos- 
sible maternal combinations and six possible paternal 
combinations of chromosomes any one being equally as 
likely as any other to unite in fertilization, thus giving 
the following combination of chromosomes : 

Possible Chromosome Combinations in Fertilization 

1+2X5+6 1+4X5+6 2+4X5+6 

1+2X5+7 1+4X5+7 2+4X5+7 

1+2X5+8 1+4X5+8 2+4X5+8 

1+2X6+7 1+4X6+7 2+4X6+7 

1+2X6+8 1+4X6+8 2+4X6+8 

1+2X7+8 1+4X7+8 2+4X7+8 

1+3X5+6 2+3X5+6 3+4X5+6 

1+3X5+7 2+3X5+7 3+4X5+7 

1+3X5+8 2+3X5+8 3+4X5+8 

1+3X6+7 2+3X6+7 3+4X6+7 

1+3X6+8 2+3X6+8 3+4X6+8 

1+3X7+8 2+3X7+8 3+4X7+8 

There are 36 possible combinations of chromosomes 
in a species with four chromosomes. Thus it is possible 
for two parents with four chromosomes to have 36 off- 
spring, no two of which are identical. In the case of 
farm animals in which the regular number of chromo- 
somes is 16 we find there are 165,636,900* possible com- 
binations of chomosomes in fertilization. 

In view of the assumption that the chromosomes bear 
the hereditary determiners, it is not surprising that we 
never find two animals exactly alike, even when of the 
same parentage. Since we cannot control the chromo- 
somes in the vital processes of maturation and fertiliza- 
tion, there is undeniably a large element of chance in 
breeding. It is not justifiable, however, to assume that 
each chromosome is entirely different from all the others 



*Continuing our problem as in maturation, the possible combinations of chromo- 
somes in fertilizations is 
[I 2 K ■}' 
— 1 which in this case Is the same as [12,870]= = 165,636,900. 
IK -IK J 



gS BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

in the same parent. The fact that there usually is a 
general resemblance between parent and offspring, as 
well as between oft'spring of the same parents at different 
periods, leads to the assumption that the chromosomes 
are largely similar. 

Mendelism a cause of variation. — The most significant 
internal cause of variation under the control of the 
breeder is that brought about by the Mendelian phe- 
nomenae. In the discussion of Mendel's law it was 
clearly indicated how variations could be produced and 
how new forms could be established (p. 49). This is a 
comparatively simple matter where few unit-characters 
are considered, although it becomes exceedingly complex 
in the more economic attributes, especially those involv- 
ing many unit-characters. 

Atavism and reversion, both internal variations in 
which the individuals skip a generation or more in their 
inheritance and resemble former ancestors more than the 
immediate parents, can be accounted for on the basis of 
the Mendelian hypothesis. 

Cross-breeding a cause of variation. — Among farm 
animals the new individual is the product of two parents 
— male and female — and is of necessity unlike either, 
being a product of both. This is considered an internal 
variation, and is slight if the blood lines are similar. 

On the other hand, the mating of dissimilar animals 
results in radical differences. Formerly this was the 
chief means by which improvement was sought. It was 
observed that the mating of unrelated animals, or those 
which had existed under a different environment, 
resulted in offspring possessing increased constitu- 
tional vigor, greater prolificacy, and often individual im- 
provement. The great difficulty came, however, when 
an attempt was made to breed these cross-bred animals. 
The offspring of such cross-bred animals varied widely, 
some were good, more were inferior, and no one could 
foretell which way the offspring would develop. While 



SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 



99 



productive of variation, cross-breeding- is objectionable 
as a system of breeding. 

Cell division a cause of variation. — Growth is the result 
of cell division. The individual cells of giants are no 
larger than those of normal animals, 
l:)Ut they are more numerous. Like- 
wise, the cells of dwarfs are not 
smaller, but fewer in number. 
Thus it follows that size, and to 
some extent the form, are depend- 
ent upon cell division If too few 
cells are formed, the animal will 
be small ; if the cells are many, the 
animal will be large ; while if too 
few in some parts or too many in 
others, the animal will be thrown 
out of proportion, which may 
be so serious as to result in a 
malformed animal. What the 
decide how far cell division 




Fig. 33 — Catalonian Jack 



influences are that 
shall proceed and 
when it shall stop in the case of each part we do not 
know. Certain it is that favorable conditions, such as 
food and care, exert a profound influence, especially while 
the animal is young and cell division is active. Aside 
from this, however, there are certain internal forces at 
work upon the normal exercise of which all typical de- 
velopment depends. Thus it follows that while cell 
division, and hence development, can certainly be influ- 
enced by favorable conditions, it is also manifest that 
absolute control is largely beyond the power of the 
breeder. 

Relative fertility and longevity. — While not ordinarily 
classified as causes of variations, relative fertility and 
longevity are important factors in the make-up of the 
characters of any particular breed. Animals are not 
equally fertile. Occasionally desirable attributes are lost 
through low fertility and sterility. A good example of 



lOO 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



this was observed in the Duchess family ^of Shorthorn^-, 
in many respects the most remarkable family of beef 
animals in the world. On the other hand, there may be 
certain characters that are correlated with highest fer- 
tility. If unrestricted, these will soon become the 
dominant characters of the breed. It is important, there- 
fore, that the breeder understand this, so that, if the fer- 




FiG. 34 — Span of Excellent Mules 



tile animals possess undesirable characters he may 
eliminate such characters, in so far as possible, by rigid 
selection ; and if the shy breeders possess very desirable 
attributes, he may take pains to preserve them, although 
there is little use in attempting to breed a strain, how- 
ever desirable, that is not at least fairly prolific. 

The make-up of the characters of a breed depends as 
much upon longevity as upon fertility. There is little 
use in attempting to breed a strain of short-lived animals. 



SOME CAUSES OF VARIATIONS 



lOI 



particularly of milk cows and horses, the former of which 
is valuable in proportion to her productive age, and the 
latter to the age to which he retains his vigor. 




Fig. 35 — Zebu Cattle, Native of Trinidad 



CHAPTER X 
INDIVIDUAL MERIT AND SELECTION 

The animals selected for breeding should be good repre- 
sentatives of the type and breed to which they belong. 
In recent years breeders have been attracted by the de- 
mand for purely bred stock and have often selected their 
breeding animals on the basis of the pedigree and with- 
out personal inspection. This is often a questionable 
practice, as many individuals find their way to the books 
of record simply because animals thus recorded are in 
very great demand, irrespective of their fitness for breed- 
ing purposes. In selecting foundation animals, they 
should be carefully examined, as animals lacking type or 
breed characteristics are likely to prove disappointing 
in the end. 

Not only should the animals themselves be carefully 
inspected, but their parents and offspring, if available, 
should also be critically noted. Especially is this true 
of the offspring, as they indicate the breeding capacity, 
and give us an idea of what to expect. So important is 
this that when selecting animals of our own breeding, it 
is suggested to breed those under consideration at an 
early age, so as to learn their breeding capacity as early 
in life as possible. If they should prove undesirable in- 
dividuals, we are able to discard them early and thus 
save needless expense in their maintenance. On the 
other hand, if they should prove desirable, we know it in 
time to secure maximum benefit. When young individ- 
uals are bred to determine the breeding capacity, they 
should be mated with animals of proven merit. 

The breeder a judge. — In animal breeding success de- 
pends very largely upon the ability to select animals with 
skill and judgment. There are three important factors to 



INDIVIDUAL MERIT AND SELECTION 



103 




be considered in choosing breeding animals — individual 
merit, pedigree and, when available, the performance of 
the animal. Among expert judges as v^ell as breeders there 
is much confusion as to the part each should play in 
making a choice. A few- 
breeders place individual 
excellence first, a few the 
pedigree, and a few others 
the performance, while 
the mass of breeders seem 
to have no very clear idea 
of the relationship be- 
tween the factors. 

The progress made in 
recent years in breeding 
trotting horses and dairy ^ ^ o «, 

P •^ Fig. 36 — Percheron Stallion "Idlefonse 

cattle IS gradually chang- 
ing our ideas of judging. Formerly we tried to estimate the 
capacity of a cow to give milk by a physical examination of 
her external characters. This was often disappointing, as 
many cows proved to be very good producers that were 
lacking in general appearance, and many cows that were 
of typical dairy form failed to make a good showing as 
producers. In other words, we cannot tell for a cer- 
tainty how fast a horse can trot or how much milk and 
butter fat a cow can produce by a physical examination. 
This can be determined only by trial — racing the horse and 
milking the cow. This is significant, and the breeder 
should distinguish clearly between individual merit and 
performance. The former is a matter of judgment, while 
the latter cannot be definitely known until a trial has 
been made of the animal's capacity. 

Types of animals. — While we cannot tell for a cer- 
tainty what an animal can do without test, yet animals 
assume rather characteristic forms or types because of 
the demand made upon them in the performance of their 
functions. Certain types, therefore, became correlated 



INDIVIDUAL MERIT AND SELECTION IO5 

with certain functions. For example, in beef production 
it is very important that the animals take on flesh and 
that the body be plump and full, w^hereas in the produc- 
tion of milk this would be considered an objection, as the 
food should go to the production of milk and not to body 
fat. Thus these two classes of animals are of necessity 
widely different in type. The beef animial is compact 
and blocky and in general appearance resembles a brick 
set on edge, the top and bottom lines being parallel, 
and there is an even covering of thick flesh throughout 
the body. On the other hand, the large digestive and 
milking capacity of the dairy cow gives her a wedge 
shape as viewed from the side. She is deeper through 
the hips, flank and udder than through the shoulders and 
chest. She is lacking in flesh, spare and angular, with 
prominent shoulders, hips and rump. Likewise, horses, 
sheep, swine and poultry vary in type according to the 
purpose for which they are produced. Thus we have 
light, coach and draft types of horses ; wool and mutton 
types of sheep ; and lard and bacon types of swine, as 
well as dairy, beef and general-purpose types of cattle. 
(For complete list of types and breeds, see appendix.) 

Within a given type there is often much variation, and 
the breeder should study the demands of the market in 
order to produce that which is most desired. Not in- 
frequently the demands of the market vary according 
to the locality. A good example is observed in the case 
of draft horse type. New York City being a great 
shipping port, where much heavy hauling is done, 
demands a large and upstanding horse, whereas the dray 
work of Boston being much lighter, the market derhands 
are for a low-set, massive drafter of good conformation. 

Utility of types. — Since certain types are associated 
with certain functions, in a general way, they are useful 
in estimating the capacity of our animals. This is par- 
ticularly true in those cases where no record of perform- 
ance is available, as in all meat-producing animals, as 



I06 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

well as all horses other than trotters and pacers. The 
breeder must make a careful study of those types that 
are correlated with the particular products which he is 
trying to produce. Thus when the production of meat 
is the principal product sought, he must know the type 
associated with early maturity and with rapid fleshing, 
as well as that most sought by the butcher and packer, 
as such commands the highest price on the market. In 
all such cases the type is exceedingly useful, as it serves 
as the only guide at the disposition of the breeder in 
selecting his animals. 

Uniformity in type. — The animals selected for breed- 
ing should be uniform in size and type. This is of 
special importance in meat-producing animals and horses 
other than racers. Butchers and packers desire cattle, 
sheep and swine uniform in weight, so that the cuts of 
meat will run uniform as their trade demands. If the 
animals vary in size and type, the weight of the cuts of 
meat will likewise vary, and to this the butcher objects, 
as he cannot find a ready market for cuts of meat varying 
in weight. Likewise, uniformity is of importance in the 
wool-producing sheep, as an even uniform clipping of 
wool is to be desired. 

In the breeding of horses uniformity in size and type 
as well as color and quality is of prime importance. This 
is emphasized by the fact that a well-matched team will 
sell for a very much better price than when the two 
animals are sold singly. The market demands teams 
uniform in type, weight, quality, color and age, and it is 
the business of the breeder to supply the market de- 
mands. To obtain uniform offspring, it is essential to 
breed animals that are uniform in type, as this character 
has a tendency to be transmitted from parent to offspring. 

Breeds of animals. — Within each type there are a num- 
ber of breeds of animals, all of which conform to the gen- 
eral type to which they belong, but differ in respect to 
breed characteristics. In breeding pure-bred animals it 



INDIVIDUAL MERIT AND SELECTION 



107 



is as important to select individuals possessing the char- 
acteristics of the breed to which they belong as it is to 
select those true to type. 

The breed to select in founding a stud, herd or flock 
will depend entirely upon the attendant conditions, as 




Fig. 38 — Hereforh Bull "Point Comfort 14th" 



there is no best breed for all conditions. The intending 
breeder should make a careful study of the situation, tak- 
ing account of the market demands, the general environ- 
ment, as well as his own limitations, and select the breed 
best suited to his particular conditions, as certain breeds 
arc not well adapted to certain conditions. A good ex- 
ample of the principle involved is observed in the case 



I08 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

of dairy cattle. A careful study of the dairy industry 
reveals the fact that in general large cows are replacing 
small ones in localities where the land is level and easily 
grazed ; while small cows are replacing large ones in hilly 
communities where grazing is difficult. 

Standard of perfection. — Each of the more important 
breeders' associations have established a standard or a 
scale of points for the guidance of breeders. This stand- 
ard denotes the characteristics that each individual of 
the breed should possess. The scale of points, known 
as the score card, gives a percentage value to each part 
of the animal and designates the desirable conformation. 
This is illustrated in the following scale of points : 

SCALE OF POINTS FOR HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN COWS 

POINTS. 

Head — Decidedly feminine in appearance; fine in contour 2 

Forehead — Broad between the eyes; dishing 2 

Face — Of medium length ; clean and trim, especially under the 

eyes, showing facial veins ; the bridge of the nose straight 2 

Muzzle — Broad with strong lips 1 

Ears — Of medium size; of fine texture; the hair plentiful and 

soft; the secretions oily and abundant 1 

Eyes — Large; full; mild; bright 2 

Horns — Small; tapering finely towaids the tips; set moderately 

narrow at base ; oval ; inclining forward ; well bent inward ; 

of fine texture; in appearance waxy 1 

Neck — Long ; fine and clean at juncture with the head ; free 

from dewlap; evenly and smoothly joined to shoulders 4 

Shoulders — Slightly lower than hips ; fine and even over tops ; 

moderately broad and full at sides 3 

Chest — Of moderate deoth and lowness; smooth and moderately 

full in the brisket ; full in the foreflanks (or through at the 

heart) 6 

Crops — Moderately full 2 

Chine — Straight; strong, broadly developed, with open vertebras 6 
Barrel — Long; of wedge shape; well rounded; with a large 

abdomen, trimly held up (in judging the last item age 

must be considered) 7 

Loin and hips — Broad; level or nearly level between the hook 

bones ; level and strong laterally ; spreading from chine 

broadly and nearly level; hook bones fairly prominent 6 

Rump — Long; high; broad with roomy pelvis; nearly level 

laterally; comparatively full above the thurl; carried out 

straight to dropping of tail 6 



INDIVIDUAL MERIT AND SELECTION IO9 

Thurl — High; broa 3 

Quarters — Deep; straight behind; twist filled with development 

of udder; wide and moderately full at the sides 4 

Flanks — Deep; comparatively full 2 

Legs — Comparatively short; clean and nearly straight; wide 
apart; firmly and squarely set under the body; feet of 
medium size, round, solid and deep 4 

Tail — Large at base, the setting well back; tapering finely to 
switch ; the end of the bone reaching to hocks or below ; 
the switch full 2 

Hair and handling — Hair healthful in appearance; fine, soft and 
furry; the skin of medium thickness and loose ; mellow 
under the hand; the secretions oily, abundant and of a rich 
brown or yellow color 8 

Mammary veins — Very large; very crooked (age must be taken 
into consideration in judging of size and crookedness) ; 
entering very large or numerous orifices ; double extension ; 
with special developments, such as branches, connections, etc. 10 

Udder and teats — Very capacious; very flexible; quarters even; 
nearly filling the space in the rear below the twist, extend- 
ing well forward in front; broad and well held up 12 

Teats — Well formed; wide apart, plumb and of convenient size 2 

Escutcheon — Largest; finest 2 

Perfection 100 

General vigor — For deficiency inspectors may discredit from the 
total received, not to exceed eight points. 

General symmetry and fineness — For deficiency inspectors may dis- 
credit from the total received, not to exceed eight points. 

General style and bearing— For deficiency inspectors may discredit 
from the total received, not to exceed eight points. 

Credits for excess of requirement in production — A cow shall be 
credited one point in excess of what she is otherwise entitled 
to for each and every ten per cent that her butter-fat record 
exceeds the minimum requirements for her age. 

The breeder should make a thorough study of the 
standard as well as the scale of points so as to be able 
to recognize desirable as well as undesirable character- 
istics. Not infrequently these breed standards call for 
certain fancy points of little or no economic value, such 
as escutcheon in the Holstein-Friesian cattle ; feather on 
the cannons and fetlocks of Clydesdale and Shire horses ; 
six white points in Poland China and Berkshire swine ; 
and the like ; but if the breeder is producing pure-bred 
animals, he is obliged to conform to breed standards, 



no BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

otherwise he will not be able to dispose of his animals 
to financial advantage. 

Value of breed characteristics. — For convenience of 
study we may divide the characteristics of a breed into 
two classes, basing our division upon the economic value 
of the feature in question. Thus we have breed char- 
acteristics that are useful and those that are not. To the 
latter group belong such features as color. So far as is 
known a red and white Holstein-Friesian cow is capable 
of yielding as much milk and butter fat as a black and 
white one, but according to the rules of the Holstein- 
Friesian Herd Book the former cannot be recorded, as 
only black and white animals are admitted. The same 
is true of color markings of Dutch Belted cattle, Poland 
China and Hampshire swine, and the like. The economic 
value of such characteristics should be clearly understood 
by the breeder, notwithstanding the fact that he must 
select his animals to conform to the breed standard, 
otherwise his animals will be discriminated against on 
the open market. 

On the other hand, many of the breed characteristics 
are exceedingly useful. This class is well exemplified in 
case of egg production in White Leghorn and Plymouth 
Rock poultry, the former laying a white egg, the latter 
a dark one. Some markets, notably those of New York 
City, prefer white eggs and pay a very high premium 
for them, while other markets, especially those of Bos- 
ton, demand dark eggs, although they do not pay so 
high a premium for them. Another notable example of 
useful breed characteristics is that of milk and butter-fat 
production in Jersey and Holstein-Friesian cattle. The 
former gives a medium flow of milk very rich in fat, 
while the latter gives a large flow which is only medium 
in the fat content. The breeder should make a careful 
study of all breed characteristics, valuable as well as 
otherwise, in order that he may select his breeding 
animals with judgment. 



INDIVIDUAL MERIT AND SELECTION III 

Age and individual merit. — The standards of perfection 
as well as the scale of points of the various breeds w^ere 
designed to apply to animals in the prime of life. As 
animals increase in age they lose much of their former 
symmetry, become more and more angular, the abdomen 
often becomes rather pendulous and the back more or 
less sw^ayed. Such changes are not taken into account 
by the standards, and it frequently happens that aged 
animals are discriminated against. This may be per- 
missible in the show ring, where animals are judged 
largely in accordance with the manner in which they 
present themselves. 

On the other hand, breeding animals should not be 
discriminated against on account of age so long as they 
retain their reproductive powers and vigor. The age of 
the parent does not affect the functions of the offspring. 
Males frequently become difficult to manage as they 
increase in age and are usually disposed of irrespective 
of their breeding qualities and a young and often un- 
proven male substituted in their place. This is a serious 
mistake, as it often happens that some of the best blood 
of the breed is lost in this manner. However, when the 
productive powers begin to wane, the animals should be 
disposed of, unless very exceptional breeders, as it is not 
economical to keep animals for breeding unless they are 
fairly fertile. 

Constitutional vigor. — While the standards of perfec- 
tion and scales of points lay considerable stress upon 
constitutional vigor, in many cases they unconsciously 
operate against it in that more weight is placed upon 
other characters, such as early maturity, refinement, and 
the like. This often proves a serious matter, as is 
demonstrated in many herds of swine where the dams 
have become so refined that they are very low in fer- 
tility as well as constitutional vigor. Where breeding 
animals are selected on basis of the standard of perfec- 
tion, the vigor often declines and in a few years the 



INDIVIDUAL MERIT AND SELECTION II3 

breeder finds his animals deteriorating in their produc- 
tive functions. 

In selecting animals for breeding the constitutional 
vigor is one of the most important characteristics to be 
considered. No animal lacking in thrift should find its 
way into the breeding herd, no matter how^ excellent, no 
matter M^hat the pedigree and no matter how high may 
be the record of performance. 



CHAPTER XI 
PEDIGREE AND SELECTION 

The capacity of the individual to reproduce itself de- 
pends largely upon the purity of the ancestors. If the 
ancestors have been good for several generations, it is 
reasonably certain that the offspring w^ill be good ; if the 
ancestors have been poor for several generations, it is 
likewise reasonably certain that the offspring w^ill be 
poor; w^hereas if the ancestors have been mixed, some 
good and some poor, it is impossible to predict w^ith any 
degree of certainty what the offspring will be like. In 
view of such facts the character of the ancestors becomes 
a very important factor in selecting breeding animals as, 
in a general way, characters will be transmitted in pro- 
portion to the degree with which they have become fixed 
in the parents. 

Form and contents of a pedigree. — For their guidance 
in selecting animals breeders long ago established stud, 
herd and flock books in which the ancestors of pure-bred 
animals were recorded. Such a record is called a pedi- 
gree. It consists of the name of the animal, which is 
usually designated by a serial number for convenience 
in tracing the pedigree, although in some of the books 
the females are arranged alphabetically within the volume. 
The pedigree also records the date of birth, usually the 
color and markings, the name and number of the sire 
and dam, together with the name and address of both the 
breeder and owner. 

Most of the breeds have but one requirement for ad- 
mission to the books of record, which is that both sire 
and dam shall be recorded, although some breeds require 
in addition certain breed characteristics, as black and 
white color in the case of Holstein-Friesians. 

114 



PEDIGREE AND SELECTION II5 

The following pedigrees, one of King of the Pon- 
tiacs, a noted Holstein-Friesian bull, the other of the 
famous Percheron stallion Calypso, illustrate the form 
and gives the data covered in the ordinary registered 
pedigree : 

39037. King of the Pontiacs. B., Eastern Michigan 
Asylum, Pontiac, Mich.; O., The Stevens Brothers-Hast- 
ings Co., Lacona, N. Y. ; March 5, 1905 ; Pontiac Korn- 
dyke 25982-Pontiac Lunde Hengerveld 51585. 
Calypso 25017 (44577) _ 

Black; foaled May 6, 1897; imported in 1900 by Dun- 
ham, Fletcher and Coleman, Wayne, 111.; bred by M. 
Brossard, Department of Sarth, France. 

Sire, Theudis 25015 (40871) by Besigue (19602) by 
Brilliant III 11116 (2919). See Brilliant III (2919). 

Dam, Fatma (25787) by Brilliant III 11116 (2919). 
See Brilliant III 11116 (2919). 

Second dam, Rose (11 158) by Brilliant 1271 (755). 

Third dam, Madelon. 

In general the pedigree is a guarantee of the purity 
of the animal, although application for registry rests 
solely with the breeder. For this reason the value of a 
pedigree is largely dependent upon the reliability of the 
owner. When a breeder files a pedigree with the request 
that it be published, the secretary of the breeders' asso- 
ciation is in a position to know whether the sire and dam 
mentioned are really owned by the breeder, and to this 
extent the secretary can vouch for the accuracy of the 
pedigree. While some errors creep in through careless 
methods of record keeping, it is very rare, indeed, for a 
breeder to falsify a breeding record or substitute an in- 
ferior animal for the one mentioned in the pedigree. 

Tracing and writing pedigrees. — Since most pedigrees 
give but one generation of ancestors, they do not provide 
the breeder with all of the desired information in select- 
ing his breeding animals. To get this information in a 
comprehensive form, breeders trace down and write out 



ii6 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



the pedigree of the particular individuals which they 
choose to consider. There are two methods of writing 
pedigrees in common use in breeders' catalogs, sales' 

papers and other advertising 
mediums, in which owners fa- 
miliarizebreeders with the breed- 
ing of their animals. In one 
method the dam's line is pre- 
sented in detail, although the 
other ancestors are not taken 
into account. Formerly this 
method was used extensively. 
In the other method all of the ancestors are considered. 




Fig. 40 — Poland China Boar 



NoNPARiEL Marquis (55757) 



Roan. Calved January 13, 


Dam 


Bred by 


Rose of Forthton 


G. & W. Forth 


Kathleen 2d 


J. Forth & Sons 


Kathleen 


J. Forth 


Nonpariel 43d 


Jas. Russell 


Nonpariel 36th 


Jas. Russell 


Nonpariel 33d 


John Isaac 


Nonpariel 31st 


S. Campbell' 


Nonpariel 26th 


S. Campbell 


Nonpariel 24th 


A. Cruickshank 


Nonpariel 23d 


A. Cruickshank 


Nonpariel 17th 


A. Cruickshank 



1905. Bred by W. C. Edwards & Co. 



Sire 
Marquis of Zenda (26064) 
Border Chief (18128) 
Defiance (8244) 
Sir William (7928) 
British Statesman (42847) 
High Sheriff 2d (702) 
Inkerman (31414) 
Sir Christopher (22895) 
Scariet Velvet (16916) 
Lord Sackville (13249) 
The Baron (13333) 
Matadore (11800) 



Bred by 
W. S. Marr 
J. & W. Russell 
Lt.-Col. Tyrwhitt 
John Miller 
S. Campbell 
W. Isaac 
S. Campbell 
R. Booth 
A. Cruickshank 
A. Cruickshank 
R. Chaloner 
W. Smith 



Lord Netherland De Kol 22187 



lord Netherland 

De Kol 22187 

B. Dec. 12, 1894 

Bred and owned 

by E. C. Brill 



Netheriand De Kol's 
Perfection 17713 



Susie De Kol 
33688 



Pietertje 2d's 
Koningen 10625 



Netherland De 
Kol 10605 



De Kol 2d'< 
Netherland 
11584 



Daisy De Kol 
20201 



Koningen Von Priesland 
5th 's Netherland 3515 

Pietertje 2d 
3273 H. H. B. 

Netherland Alban 
4584 H. H. B. 

De Kol 2d 
734 

Netherland Alban 
4584 H. H. B. 

De Koi 2d 
734 

De Kol 2d's Prince 
27o7 

Belle Bamum 
2422 



PEDIGREE AND SELECTION 11/ 

and for convenience in study the pedigree is arranged in 
tabular form. 

The preceding pedigrees, one of Nonpariel Marquis, a 
Shorthorn bull, and the other the Holstein-Friesian bull, 
Lord Netherland De Kol, illustrate the two forms in 
common use. 



Fig 41 — Aberdeen Angus Bull "Leroy of Meadowbrook" 

In the case of Nonpariel Marquis we note that the 
pedigree runs entirely on the dam's side, and the ances- 
tors are given for ii generations. Were all of the an- 
cestors included for this period the pedigree would con- 
tain 4,094 individuals instead of 2^), as in the present 
form. Manifestly such pedigrees give little information 
for the guidance of the breeder. In the case of Lord 
Netherland De Kol all of the ancestors are given for the 
generations covered by the pedigree, which, of course, 
could easily be extended to the foundation animals of 
the breed. Such a pedigree gives a complete list of all 
the ancestors and is of the greatest significance in select- 
ing breeding animals. 

Comparative value of ancestors. — The former practice 
of recording ancestors entirely on the dam's side encour- 



ii8 



BREEDING 07 EARM ANIMALS 



aged the idea of extending the pedigree to include very 
remote ancestors. Not infrequently pedigrees extended 
for twenty generations, as breeders associated great 
length of pedigree with high breeding qualities. We now 
have sufficient evidence to show that breeders formerly 
placed too high a value on extreme length of pedigree. 
Many of our best individuals that show a high tendency 
to reproduce their characters have secured their qualities 
from a comparatively short line of ancestors. It is the 
animals making up the pedigree for the first four or five 
generations that are of great influence in giving any in- 
dividual the power to transmit qualities. So great is the 
influence of the first four or five generations that it makes 
little difference what the individuals were back of that 
period. 

In our discussion of the law of ancestral heredity it 
was stated that the two immediate parents contributed 
between them one-half of the effective heritage, the grand- 
parents one-fourth, and the great-grandparents one- 



'G. sire i/i(j 



Total 
heritage 



Sir 1/4 - 



rG. G. G. sire ^230 
G. G. sire i/(i4 -| 

I^G. G. G. dam V^go 

rG. G. G. sire Vj-» 
G. G. dam 1/04 J. 

[G. G. G. dam y-r^o 



Total 



Dam Vi 



V2 



,G. dam i/i 



G. sire Vio 



G. dam Yiis 



% 



G. G. sire Vm 
G. G. dam %4 
-G. G. sfre i/o4 
G. G. dam Ma 
G. C. sire %4 
G. G. dam %4 



G. G. G. sire iV.c 

G. G. G. dam i/jr.d 

"G. G. G. sire 1/250 

G. G. G. dam VL'go 

G. G. G. sire i/2r,o 

G. G. G. dam V-r.e 

G. G. G. sire ^256 

G. G. G. dam y2r.o 

G. G. G. sire V-im 

G. G. G. dam %g« 

G. G. G. sire V^r.a 

G. G. G. dam Vi2:io 
Vio 



all 



others 



Vie 



PEDIGREE AND SELECTION 



119 



eighth, and so on to infinity, so that the total heritage 
would be represented by one. For convenience of study 
the preceding table is arranged in accordance with this 
law, and it shows the heritage contributed by each an- 
cestor for four generations . 




Fig. 42 — Aberdeen Angus Cow "Glencarnock Isla'' 



The table shows conclusively the fallacy of selecting 
an animal when only the female line is represented in the 
pedigree, as only the ancestors in italics would ap- 
pear. Thus of the thirty ancestors in the four genera- 
tions only seven would be represented and together they 
would contribute only about 40 per cent of the total 
heritage. 

Animal with inbred pedigree. — The relative influence 
of an animal in an inbred pedigree is a much-discussed 
question among animal breeders. Such a pedigree limits 
blood lines to few and closely related lines of descent, it 
increases prepotency, gives stability to the family, favors 



120 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



uniformity and intensifies characters both good and bad. 
The pedigree of the famous Jersey bull Polonius gives a 
good illustration of an inbred pedigree. 



Polonius 
2513 



Sarpendon 
930 



Mercury 
432 



Europa 
176 



Lady 
799 



Jupiter 
93 



Jupiter 
93 


Saturn 
94 

Rhea 
166 


Alphea 
171 


Saturn 
94 

Rhea 
166 


Jupiter 
93 


Saturn 
94 

Rhea 
166 


Alphea 
171 


Saturn 
94 

Rhea 
166 


Saturn 
94 




"Rhea 
166 




Jupiter 
93 


Saturn 
94 

Rhea 
166 


Alphea 
171 


Saturn 
94 

Rhae 
166 



Europa 
176 



In a common pedigree there would be 26 ancestors in 
the four generations, representing 14 lines of descent, 
whereas in the pedigree of Polonius there are but eight 
individuals, representing two lines of descent. Saturn 
and Rhea each appears seven times, Jupiter four, Alphea 
three, Europa two, while each of the other three appears 
but once. According to the law of ancestral heredity 



PEDIGREE AND SELECTION 



121 



these eight ancestors collectively contribute ^^q of the 
total heritage, each individual contributing as follow^s : 



Males 
Sarpendon Vi 
Mercury Vie 
Jupiter %4 
Saturn %4 



Females 
Ledy V4 
Europa Vs 
Alphea %4, 
Rhea %4 



A still more remarkable case of condensing blood lines 
is observed in the pedigree of Alphea Czar. This pedi- 
gree traces back from four to eight generations and repre- 
sents 106 ancestors w^ith 52 lines of descent, w^hereas 
there are actually 14 ancestors v^ith but two lines of 




Fig. 43 — Dorsf.t-Horned Ram 

descent in the pedigree. Saturn and Rhea, the original 
animals, each appears 27 times, Jupiter 15, Alphea 12, 
Mercury 7, Europa 5, Phaedra and Leda 3 each, Nym- 
phaea 2, while Splendor the bull. Splendor the cow. Ele- 
vator, Hark Comstock and Mercury, Jr., each appears 
once. 

Pedigree with exceptional animal. — Our former 
methods of writing pedigrees encouraged the idea of 
placing much stress upon an exceptional ancestor, even 



122 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

though he appears many generations back in the pedi- 
gree. Manifestly, in the light of the law of ancestral 
heredity, this practice seems unwarranted. This is par- 
ticularly true in case the individual in question has 
gained the notoriety through a show yard career, as this 
signifies little save that the animal was an exceptional 
individual. It gives us no assurance that the good qual- 
ities will be transmitted to the offspring. In fact, it very 
frequently happens that the reverse is the case, as there 
are few exceptional show animals that have produced 
offspring famous as breeders or show animals. We 
should not, therefore, place too much stress upon the 
exceptional animal unless the breeding powers have been 
fully demonstrated by an actual breed test. 

Value of family names. — In the development and im- 
provement of a breed of animals it not infrequently hap- 
pens that the descendants of some famous individual 
assume a family name. Such families are sometimes 
founded by a sire, but more frequently by a dam. Good 
examples of where families were founded by the sire are 
observed in the case of Standardbred horses where the 
Hambletonian family descended from Hambletonian lo, 
the Clay family from Henry Clay 8, and the Morgan 
family from Justin Morgan. Among the more noted 
families founded by dams, we have the Duchess family of 
Shorthorns descending from Duchess I by Comet and the 
De Kol family of Holstein-Friesians descended from 
De Kol 2d by Willem III, Animals belonging to such 
families frequently become very popular and their 
descendants in very great demand. There is usually 
keen rivalry among the breeders. Under such condi- 
tions breeders with unlimited means frequently pay fancy 
prices for the more promising individuals, with the idea 
that they can sell the offspring to advantage and make 
money on the transaction. This is more or less of a 
speculation, as a special market must be found for each 
animal sold. For the man who has the means and the 



PEDIGREE AND SELECTION 1 23 

executive ability to conduct such a business, it may prove 
exceedingly profitable. The average breeder, however, 
should understand the matter thoroughly before paying 
a fancy price for a single individual simply because the 
animal happens to be a member of a family in great 
public favor. 

Significance of breeder's name. — The reward that oc- 
curs to the breeder who persists in his efforts to develop 
a strain or improve a breed of animals is unexcelled by 
that of any other profession. Everywhere we find 
breeders whose reputation is known far and wide. The 
mere fact that an animal was 
bred by them is sufficient rec- 
ommendation to establish its 
worth. Such men first make 
a careful study of the business, 
decide upon a strain and breed, 
then work out a definite method ^J^^feSi..,***'' ^ -^^^^^ 
of procedure which they ad- fic 44— duroc jersey boar 

here to persistently. In such 

cases the breeder's methods are a guarantee that none 
but good animals were used in the business, and that 
these were selected after a thorough consideration of the 
individual merit, pedigree and record of performance. 

Proportion of pure-bred animals, — Such statistics as 
have been collected show that there is a close relation- 
ship between the number of pure-bred animals in a local- 
ity and the general excellence of farm stock. Of the 
twenty counties in New York State containing the largest 
number of dairy cattle those with the largest number 
of purely bred animals include the counties in which the 
average production was highest and the counties which 
made the largest increase in yield during the past 
decade. 

In this connection it is interesting to observe that such 
statistics as are available in a few states show that the 
majority of stallions standing for public service are not 



124 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

recorded. No doubt some of these unrecorded animals 
are useful sires. It is safe to say, however, that most 
of them are of little credit to the country, for many, even 
of those that are recorded, are unsuited for the service 
they are allowed to perform. The meager statistics that 
are available for cattle, sheep and swine indicate that a 
very large percentage of the males used for service are 
not recorded. 

In 1905, the Bureau of Animal Industry issued a report 
in which it estimated that of all horses in the United 
States 1.02 per cent were registered. For dairy cattle 
the per cent was given as 1.07, beef cattle 1.05, sheep 0.46 
and swine 0.45. This gives evidence that a very large 
proportion of the sires in use throughout the country 
are unregistered. This no doubt accounts for much of 
the indifference attending animal breeding in this 
country. 



A, 



CHAPTER XII 
PERFORMANCE AND SELECTION 

It must be clearly recognized that, as a basis for 
estimating the breeding powers of an animal, nothing 
compares with an accurate test of just what the animal 
can do. While individuality and pedigree are important 
factors for the guidance of breeders, they both become 
secondary to a record of performance, the result of an 
actual test. In considering such a record, however, it is 
necessary to have full regard for the conditions under 
which it was made. Thus an individual with a moderate 
record made under adverse conditions may be just as 
valuable as one with a high record made under the most 
favorable circumstances. On the other hand, an increase 
of a fair degree of merit under limited opportunities is 
not a satisfactory assurance of the ability to produce 
excellent results when accorded the most favorable op- 
portunity. 

For many years we have kept an accurate record of the 
speed of trotting and pacing horses. These speed records 
have been recorded in Wallace's Year Book. More re- 
cently a system of testing milk and butter-fat capacity 
of dairy cows has been inaugurated. The results of such 
tests are recorded in the advanced register. We now 
have the speed records of thousands of horses as well as 
the milk and butter-fat records of thousands of dairy 
cows, going back many generations. These data, accu- 
rately collected and properly interpreted, furnish invalu- 
able aids to breeders in selecting their animals. 

Standards of performance. — Before an animal can be 
admitted to the advanced register it must first prove its 
worth by fulfilling certain requirements in an actual test. 
This is very different from the requirements of the stud, 



126 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

herd and flock books, where an animal is eligible to ad- 
mission providing its sire and dam are recorded, although 
the animal must be thus recorded before it is qualified to 
enter the test for the advanced register. For the most 
part these standards of performance are not difficult. They 
were established with a view of encouraging large num- 
bers of animals to enter the test, as it was thought more 



Fig. 45 — Standardbred Stallion "Kremlin," 2:07% 

good would result from large numbers of fairly efficient 
animals than small numbers of highly efficient ones. 

Trotting and pacing standard. — When an animal meets 
these requirements and is duly registered, it shall be ac- 
cepted as a standard-bred trotter or pacer : 

1. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse 
and a registered standard trotting mare. 

2. A stallion sired by a registered standard trotting 
horse, providing his dam and granddam were sired by a 



PERFORMANCE AND SELECTION 12/ 

registered standard trotting horse, and he himself has a 
record of 2 130 and is the sire of three trotters with 
records of 2 130 from different mares. 

3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard trotting 
horse, and whose dam and granddam were sired by regis- 
tered trotting horses, providing she herself has a trotting 
record of 2 130 or is the dam of one trotter with a record 
of 2 :30. 

4. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, 
providing she is the dam of two trotters with records of 
2:30. 

5. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse, 
providing her first, second and third dams are each sired 
by a registered standard trotting horse. 

The pacing standard is similar except the word "pacer" 
is substituted for the word "trotter;" "pacing" for the 
word "trotting" and the speed standard 2 125 for 2 130, 
and the addition of a sixth paragraph, which is as follows : 

6. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse 
out of a registered standard pacing mare, or of a regis- 
tered standard pacing horse out of a registered standard 
trotting mare.* 

Holstein-Friesian seven-day standard. — When a cow 
meets the following requirements and is duly registered 
she may be admitted to the advanced register: 

A cow calving on or before the day she is two years of 
age shall make a record of not less than 7.2 pounds of 
butter fat in seven consecutive days ; and for every day 
that she may exceed two years of age at date of calving 
the requirement for the butter-fat record shall be in- 
creased .00439 of 3- pound. 

If calving on the day she is five years of age, she shall 
make a record of not less than 12 pounds of butter fat in 
seven consecutive days ; and no increase in production 
for increased age at date of birth shall be required for any 
cow calving subsequently. 

♦Wallace's American Trotting Register. 



128 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

Holstein-Friesian seven-day requirement by classes : 

Junior two-year-old ._ 7.2 pounds 

Senior two-year-old 8.0 pounds 

Junior three-year-old 8.8 pounds 

Senior three-year-old 9.6 nounds 

Junior four-year-old 10.4 pounds 

Senior four-year-old 11.2 pounds 

Full age 12.0 pounds 

Holstein-Friesian, Jersey and Guernsey yearly stand- 
ard. — If a test for the period of one year is commenced 
the day the cow is two years old, or previous to that day, 
she must produce, within one year from the date the test 
begins, 250.5 pounds butter fat. For each day the cow 
is over two years old at the beginning of her year's test, 
the amount of butter fat she must produce in the year is 
fixed by adding o.i (one-tenth) of a pound for each such 
day to the 250.5 pounds required for the two-year-old. 
This ratio of increase applies until the cow is five years 
old at the beginning of her test, when the required amount 
will have reached 360 pounds, which will be the amount 
of butter fat required of all cows five years old or over. 

These standards are based upon 
one complete year's record from 
the time of beginning, regard- 
less of any time which may be 
lost by being dry or calving 
during that period. 

Fig. 46 — Berkshire Sow « i • i , i -i 

Ayrshire yearly standard. — 

This calls for 214.3 pounds of fat at two years of age, with 
the addition of .06 of fat for each succeeding day up to 
three years of age, when the standard calls for 236 of fat, 
with the addition of .12 for each succeeding day up to 
five years of age, when the requirement is 322 pounds 
of fat. 

Brown Swiss yearly requirement. — This call for 222 
pounds of fat at two years and six months of age, with 
the addition of .09 of fat for each succeeding day up to 




PERFORMANCE AND SELECTION 



120 



six years of age, when the requirement calls for 2)37 
pounds of fat. 

The advanced register record. — A pedigree consists of 
the name and number of an animal, the name and number 
of the sire and dam, together with the name and address 
of the owner. These data tell us nothing of what the 
animal has done and gives us no assurance of what it is 
capable of doing. True, it signifies that the animal is 
purely bred, and in the case of famous families and noted 
owners adds commercial value, but as to actual produc- 
ing and breeding power it leaves us as much in the dark 
as we were before. Contrast with this the data given 
in the advanced register. 

The following Holstein-Friesian advanced register 
records, one of the noted cow, Belle Korndyke, the other 
a partial record of the bull. Lord Netherland De Kol, 
illustrate the form and give the data covered in the ad- 
vanced register. 

The first number following the name is the advanced 
register number and the second the herd book number. 
The first figure in 
the parenthesis in- 
dicates the number 
of advanced regis- 
ter daughters that 
each animal has ; 
the second figure 
the number of sons 
that are sires of 
tested daughters ; 
and the third figure 
the number of 
daughters that are 
dams of tested 
daughters. 

Under each animal's name will be found a list of tested 
daughters, together with their milk, butter fat and butter 




Fic. 47 — Dutch Belted Bull "Auten" 



VD 



On 



ON 

U 

« 

Q 

J 
J 
W 



MCDOO t^ CO — ' 
00<N(MOO0)0) 00 00 



■^cD-*oom-< 

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r^ ooicdoJoo 



j4 ro lO ■* M ■* '^ 
™io r^ i/) 00 ^ o 

S!D tM <r> -- o ro 
■^ fO IT) li^ in fM 






"■*C0>O>OinN -:f Sj 



^' 



^r^'-i^oo — — oo-^inoorji^iooro — -^o 

0>O50CMirjTC<xl0D0>(M0qC0<r'aiC^'*00O — 00 

^cDfOC50-;^o-^(Ooqc\itDt--05r--fOrqrooqo 
o'0<'5oo'Tt<cvJioo-*r^cDror>JaicJo6-"CccDrJM 



^ojoo^— -r-'O^oi'^ rood oini/i-^ojporococj 



j^i/i'^r^^oofor«]0ooro^03t^co^o>"^ior0'^ 

S'-oo^fO-^fOrocjcD^-^iocDX'CDai — r^iO]CD^ 
ro ■* M CO •* lO ■*■* ■*roin CM-* ■*■*«-* CO "^c^ 



o; bJO 

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C/] M-l 

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QO)0000O)O5CO '-J^!^ O Q ■* (O Tl- ^CD oi/) Od ro OCO) — l^tCOJCD crO^O) SH O 

NM ■— <ajl:r4 CN| ^ ■^CM'-'O] •"'^ CM -^ CMCMCg c3 






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CM in 'n 



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yr ii V CM D- 



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4) _ " 

.5 g o o 0, 
'£"£■ "^ U t- 



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CD '^J "^ O 

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130 



PERFORMANCE AND SELECTION 



131 



record, as well as the age at which the record was made, 
and following the list of daughters with records will be 
found, printed in italics, the names and herd book num- 
bers of the sons that are sires of tested daughters, and of 
the daughters that are dams of tested daughters. 

Following the name of each tested daughter will be 
found three numbers. The first is the animal's advanced 
register number, the second is the number of the volume 
of the advanced register in which the record given may 
be found, and the third the herd book number. Follow- 
ing this is the milk, fat and butter record ; also the age 
at which it was made. 

Value of advanced register record in selection. — To get 
the data contained in an advanced register record before 
us in a more concrete form, let us tabulate the pedigree 



Pedigree of Lord Netherland De Kol 22187, Including 
THE Advanced Register Records* 









Koningen Von Friesland 








Sth's Netherland 3515 






Pietertje 2d's 








Koningen 10625 


Pietertje 2d 






1-3-0 


3273H. H. B. ' 




' Netherland DeKol 








Perfection 17713- 




Netherland Alban 




14-14-23 




5484H.H.B. 






Netherland De Kol 


1-3-5 






10605 


De Kol 2d 734 

536.8 milk, 21.261 fat 
2-7-5 


Lord Netherland 








De Kol 22187 






Netherland Alban 


120-31-99 






5,484 H.H.B. 






' DeKol 2d 's 


1-3-5 






Netherland 11584 • 


De Kol 2d 734 






22-21-28 


536.8 milk, 21.261 fat 

2-7-5 




Susie De Kol 








33688 




r De Kol 2d's Prince 




475.5 milk 




2767 




20.245 fat 


Daisy De Kol 






5-4-8 


20201 


Belle Barnum 
2422 



*Made up from Vol. 24 of the Holstein-Priesian Advanced Register. 

of Lord Netherland De Kol, similar to that on page ii6, 
but including the advanced register data. 

This means that Lord Netherland De Kol has 120 



132 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

daughters with advanced register records; that 31 of his 
sons have daughters w^ith records; and that 99 of his 
daughters are the dams of daughters v^^ith advanced 
register records. His sire, Netherland De Kol's Perfec- 
tion, has 14 daughters v^ith records ; he has 14 sons that 
have daughters w^ith records ; and he is the sire of 2^ 
dams that have advanced register daughters. His dam, 
Susie De Kol, has a record of 475.5 pounds of milk and 
20.245 pounds of fat in seven days, as w^ell as five daugh- 
ters v^^ith records ; she has four sons that are the sires of 
daughters with records ; and she has eight daughters that 
are the dams of daughters with records. Like data are 
given for each ancestor that has an advanced register 
record. 

In like manner, to get the data contained in Wallace's 
Year Book before us in a more concrete form, let us 
tabulate the pedigree of the Standardbred horse, Aller- 
ton, who leads the list with 257 performing get to his 
credit. (P. 133.) 

This gives us practically the same data as that given in 
the Holstein-Friesian pedigree. It signifies that Allerton 
has 199 trotters and 58 pacers to his credit in the year 
book; that 85 of his sons have sired 197 trotters and 116 
pacers; and that 61 of his daughteis are the dams of 63 
trotters and 19 pacers, making a total of 395 performers 
in the second generation. Similar data are given for each 
ancestor in the pedigree. The sire. Jay Bird, has a total 
of 706 performers in the second generation ; George 
Wilkes, the grandsire, has 3,394, and Hambletonian 10, the 
great grandsire, has 1,836, while both parents have 964, the 
four grandparents 3,641, and the great-grandparents have 
5,620 performers in the second generation of offspring, 
making a total of 10,225 in the three generations of an- 
cestors. Of course, wherever the same ancestor occurs 
twice the performers are counted twice. 

Exact measure of breeding capacity, — This standard is 
an absolute one, and gives an exact measure of the breed- 



es; 






•*o oft 



w^ 







3 


1 










:^L 
































2ei 




<u 


.S O p w § 


t_ 






v _ 


George W 
72 trott 

103 sires; 
pacers 

110 dams; 


« 










X+^m g-d 
















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cSrNt^ ftO 


ft 






a! 
ft 




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^ -^ - 
























u 


S 




































ft 


u. 








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cs 



Q 
« 
O 

a 
o 
3 

CO < 
O 

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w 
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133 



134 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



ing capacity of the particular individual in question. 
True, such records depend on opportunity, although Lord 
Netherland De Kol was chosen to illustrate the value of 
a record of performance in selecting animals for breeding 
purposes because, so far as known, he did not have ex- 
ceptionally favorable conditions. Nevertheless, at the 

present time (1913), he 
leads the list of Holstein- 
Friesian sires with ad- 
vanced register daugh- 
ters, although De Kol 2d's 
Butter Boy 3d's 74 sons 
lead the list of sons with 
581 daughters in the 
register, while Lord 
Netherland De Kol's 31 
sons have only 105 
daughters with records. 
In this respect De Kol 
2d's Butter Boy 3d is 
followed by Hengerveld 
De Kol, whose 54 sons 
have 447 daughters in the advanced register, and by King 
Segis, whose 50 sons have 340 daughters with records. 

Manifestly, so far as ability to produce performers is 
concerned, such a record as this is of vastly more im- 
portance to the breeder than individuality or pedigree. 
While, theoretically, successful animal breeding depends 
largely upon the law of chance, such records as these 
practically eliminate the chance, and we can predict the 
outcome within the limits of accident in animal life. 
True, this again depends on chance, but not in the same 
sense as when we mate animals of unknown breeding 
capacity. 

Vigor and performance. — In selecting animals on the 
basis of their performance, constitutional vigor becomes 
of prime importance. Many of our high-performing 




Fig. 48 — Dutch Belted Cow "Jennie" 



PERFORMANCE AND SELECTION 1 35 

animals seem to produce so heavily as to undermine their 
constitutional vigor. If such animals are selected for 
breeding, the offspring are likely to lack vigor, and of 
course will be unable to equal the performance of their 
parents. We are not w^ithout examples of this, as both 
dairy cattle and hens have been selected for breeding pur- 
poses on the basis of their production alone, with dis- 
astrous results. When choosing his breeding animals, 
therefore, the breeder must clearly recognize that in the 
absence of vigor and thrift all else may come to naught, 
even though the particular animal selected be a good 
individual, well bred, and with a high record of per- 
formance to his credit. 

Meat, wool and egg production. — Up to the present 
time we have recorded performance among race horses 
and dairy cows only. Speed and milk production are 
easily measured, and our breeders have seized upon them 
in the hope of gaining some light in the mysteries of 
breeding. There seems to be no difficulty, however, in 
measuring and recording wool production among sheep, 
and but little difficulty is encountered in measuring egg 
production among poultry ; in fact, most of the agricul- 
tural experiment stations and a few breeders keep ac- 
curate account of both functions. This provides equally 
as valuable data in selecting breeding animals as ad- 
vanced register records among cattle. No doubt in the 
course of the next few years a concentrated effort will be 
made by the various breeders' associations to keep an 
accurate account and record all such useful functions. 

There are a few functions that cannot be measured 
with any degree of accuracy. Chief among these is meat 
production. It would be difficult, if not impossible, to 
measure such attributes as early maturity and economic 
fleshing qualities among our meat-producing animals. 
In selecting such breeding animals the breeder must rely 
upon his own skill in estimating such attributes. 

Value of show awards. — In the case of meat-produc- 



136 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

ing animals and horses it has been suggested that the 
show-ring decisions be recorded and that this be used 
as the basis in selecting breeding animals. In all prob- 
ability such records would be of very little value in de- 
tecting, -or even in estimating breeding capacity. In 
reality this constitutes selecting animals on the basis of 
individual merit. As has been stated, individual excel- 
lence gives us no indication of the breeding capacity of 
an animal. 



CHAPTER XIII 

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO SELECTION BASED 
ON PERFORMANCE 

The development attained by each of our breeds of 
animals has resulted from many co-ordinated influences, 
no one of which has played so great a role as that of 
selection. In the past there has been much confusion 
among breeders in the matter of selecting animals. Much 
of this was due to lack of understanding as to what con- 
stituted breed excellence. Breeders were divided in their 
opinion as to the most important characters. Some 
breeders were selecting to advance one set of characters, 
while other breeders were trying to advance another set. 
Not infrequently these characters were negatively cor- 
related, and as one improved the other declined. True, 
each breed had its scale of points and standard of excel- 
lence, but the interpretation of these was left to the 
judgment of the individual breeder, and in the absence 
of a definite feature, attribute or character to measure 
there was utter lack of concentrated effort. As would 
be expected under such conditions of affairs the standard 
of excellence and scales of points have been modified from 
time to time to suit the ideas of breeders. These changes 
have not always worked to the advantage of the particu- 
lar breeds affected. 

Characters considered and methods of presentation.— 
To get the essentials involved in animal improvements 
clearly before us, it is proposed to present and discuss 
facts disclosed by the advanced register for Holstein- 
Friesian cattle and by Wallace's Year Book for horses. 
In view of the remarkable advancement attained in speed 
development and milk production some of the data are 
considered in detail, particularly that related to milk and 



138 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

butter-fat production. The dairy cow and the race horse 
are the only classes of farm animals in which records 
of performance are kept, and hence the only ones con- 
cerning which we have definite knowledge of the exact 
advantage gained. However, the same principles are 
involved and the same suggestions apply to other char- 
acters, such as meat and wool production, the develop- 
ment of the draft horse, the coach horse, and the like. 
Because of the vast amount of data considered and to 
get the facts clearly before us it is necessary to present a 
few rather long and complicated tables. These should 
be carefully considered by the reader in order that he 
may analyze, generalize and synthesize of his own accord, 
thus stimulating thought, which will lead to closer ob- 
servation throughout nature generally. 

DEVELOPING THE TROTTER 

Records of performance were first recorded among race 
horses. In the beginning, this was a private undertaking, 
the time of the horse being recorded in racing calendars. 
This was for the information of the men who wagered 
their money on the race, rather than for the guidance 
of breeders in selecting horses for breeding. Later, the 
value of such records became apparent to the breeder, 
and the year 1839 witnessed the beginning of methodic 
recording time of horses in the more important races. 
From that time until the present we have a more or less 
complete and fairly accurate record of each horse taking 
part in the more important racing events in this country. 

Influence of time records. — Such records have been a 
most important factor in developing extreme speed in 
the trotter and pacer. This method not only enables us 
to distinguish the slow and fast horses, but from the 
records we can determine those horses that are actually 
producing fast animals as illustrated in the pedigree 



IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PERFORMANCE I39 

(p. 133). Thus in selecting breeding animals, the slow 
ones are eliminated, and the fast ones are mated, which, 
in connection with improved conditions, enables us to get 
even faster horses. Again, the slow-producing animals 
are discarded and the fast ones mated, which results in a 
still greater increase in speed. 

At the close of the 191 3 racing season there were listed 
in the year book approximately 50,000 performers, of 
which about 30,000 were trotters and about 20,000 pacers. 
These performers were sired by approximately 10,000 
stallions and out of 25,000 mares. This gives 
an average of five performers to a sire and two to 
a dam. 

Breeding of great sires. — Of the thousands of sires 
recorded in the great table of the year book there are 
but 30 credited with 100 or more performers; that is, 
horses good enough to meet the requirements for ad- 
mission. While the average of all sires listed is ap- 
proximately five performers, the average of the 30 great 
sires is approximately 150 each. These great sires, there- 
fore, are thirty times as efficient as the average sire. Mani- 
festly the breeder should be interested in the history of the 
breeding of these noted animals so as to be able to pro- 
duce others if possible. Fortunately, the record of per- 
formance as kept in the year book gives us a complete 
history of the breeding power of each ancestor, provid- 
ing it was meritorious enough to gain admission. 

It is interesting to observe, of these 30 noted horses, 
that the sire, paternal grandsire and great-grandsire each 
has performing get to his credit ; that each dam, with two 
exceptions, has performing get; that each maternal 
grandsire, without exception, has performing get; and 
that each paternal granddam, with seven exceptions, has 
performing get to her credit. 

The following tabulation shows the average number 
of performing get for each ancestral form for three gen- 
erations of ancestors for the 30 great sires : 



140 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



30 great sires 
109.5 trotters 
38. 1 pacers 

147.6 



ERFORMANCE OF 30 GrEAT SiRES 


AND Their 


Ancestors* 








30 G. G. sires 






22.5 trotters 






.7 pacer 






23.2 




30 G. Sires 






47.0 trotters 






4.6 pacers 


30 G. G. dams 






1.1 trotters 




51.6 




30 sires 






76.1 trotters 




30 G. G. sires 


13.1 pacers 




7.6 trotters 






.4 pacer 


89.2 


30 G. dams 
2.1 trotters 

30 G. sires 
19.3 trotters 


8.0 

30 G. G. dams 
.16 trotter 

30 G. G. sires 
15.5 trotters 
.5 pacer 

16.0 




2.6 pacers 


30 G. G. dams 






.2 trotter 




21.9 




30 dams 






2.9 trotters 




30 G. G. sires 


.2 pacer 




9.8 trotters 
2.2 pacers 


3.1 


30 G. dams 
1.0 trotter 
.1 pacer 


12.0 
30 G. G. dams 




1.1 


03 trotter 



*Made up from Vol. 29, Wallace's Year Book. 



This tabulation is significant. It illustrates the exact 
breeding power necessary to produce the greatest of 
Standardbred sires. It also shows the increased efficiency 
from generation to generation. The 30 famous animals 
averaged 147 performers each, while their sires averaged 
89, their paternal grandsires 51, and the great-grandsires 
8 and 2^, each, while the granddams average two each, 
with both great-granddams represented. Again, the 
dams of the 30 noted animals averaged three performers 



IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PERFORMANCE I4I 

each, the maternal grandsires almost 2.2, and the great- 
grandsires 12 and 16 each, while the granddams aver- 
aged one each, w^ith both great-granddams represented. 
No doubt many factors are involved in this remarkable 
development, but the significant fact remains that of the 
thousands of sires listed in the great table of the year 
book not a single animal stands high in the list, but that 
is backed up by high-performing ancestors for many 
generations. 

DEVELOPING THE DAIRY COW 

While cattle have been bred for dairy purposes for 
more than a century, marked improvement in milk yield 
and butter-fat production is of comparatively recent date. 
It is associated with the development of our present sys~ 
tem of keeping records of the milk yield and the butter 
fat produced for the individual animal. Formerly dairy 
cattle were selected on the basis of their conformation, 
which, as has been stated, is not a true guide to efficiency. 
This resulted in slow progress. Not satisfied with such 
progress a few breeders began to keep an accurate ac- 
count of the milk yield and churned butter that their 
animals produced. Such remarkable progress followed 
that the dairy cattle-breeders' associations took up the 
matter of keeping records. They standardized the work 
and established the advanced registers in which the per- 
formance is recorded. 

Influence of butter-fat records. — While the Jersey 
cattle breeders' association have encouraged the 
keeping of records since the earl}'- '70's and the Hol- 
stein-Friesian since the early '8o's, it was not until 1894 
that the Holstein-Friesian breeders' association began 
the official supervision of records. Although the work 
has been in progress but two decades great advancement 
has been made both in regard to the number of animals 
tested and the results obtained. 



142 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



As in the case of time records among horses, the 
records of dairy production not only enable the breeder 
to distinguish the low from the high producing, but from 
the records he can determine which individuals are ac- 
tually getting high-producing animals. In selecting 
breeding animals the breeder has but to eliminate the 
low performing and mate the high performing which, in 
connection with improved conditions, results in even 
higher producing animals, and the general improvement 
of dairy cattle. 




:^«w«gy-T3i 







Fig. 49 — Holstein-Friesian Co\y "Glista Omicron' 
25.285 pounds of butter fat in seven days. 



Breeding of cows with advanced register records. — 

Manifestly, the breeding of cows that can meet the re- 
quirements for admission to the advanced register is of 
interest. To illustrate this a tabulation is made of all 
of the Holstein-Friesian cows admitted to the register 



IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PERFORMANCE 



143 



during the two years ending May 15, 191 1. This in- 
cludes 7,443 cows, of which 5,072 were first entries and 
2,371 re-entries; that is, cows increasing a previous 
record. Inasmuch as the re-entries may be considered a 
second selection, they will be considered separately. 
Since the requirements for admission to the advanced 
register are not very difficult the table is divided into 
three parts, the first division including those cows that 
exceed the requirement by less than 50 per cent, the 
second those that exceed the requirement by 50 to 100 
per cent, and the third division those cows that exceed 

Breeding of Holstein-Friesian Cows, First Entries, 
That Fxceed the Requirement by Less Than 50% ; 

BY 50% TO 1007f ; AND BY IOO% AND AbOVE. 



Character of matings 



Number 
of cows 



Per cent, 
of cows 



Cows that exceed the requirement by less than 50%, 3,856; 76% of total number 



Both sire and dam in register. . . 
Neither sire nor dam in register. 

Sire in register, dam not 

Dam in register, sire not 



Totals . 




34. 
27. 
26. 
13. 



Cows that exceed the requirement by 50% to 100%, 1,090; 22% of total number 



Both sire and dam in register. . . 
Neither sire nor dam in register. 

Sire in register, dam not 

Dam in register, sire not 



Totals . 



1,090 



491 


45. 


196 


18. 


224 


21. 


179 


16. 



100. 



Cows that exceed the requirements by 100% and more, 126; 2 % of total number. 



Both sire and dam in register. . . , 
Neither sire nor dam in register. 

Sire in register, dam not 

Dam in register, sire not 



Totals. 



82 


65. 


4 


3. 


22 


18. 


18 


14. 



144 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



the requirement by lOO per cent or more. The cows 
were arranged in four classes according" to the possible 
kinds of mating. (See table on p. 143.) 

In the first division more than one-third of the cows 
have both parents in the advanced register, while almost 
three-fourths of them have at least one parent in the 
register. Note how this percentage increases as the 
standard is raised. In the second division approximately 
one-half have both parents in the register, while about 
five-sixths have one parent in the register; whereas in 
the third division, where the standard is doubled, prac- 

Breeding of Holstein-Friesian Cows, Re-entries That 
Exceed the Requirement by Less Than 50% ; by 50%- 
TO 100% ; and by 100% AND Above. 



Character of matings 



Number 
of cows 



Per cent, 
of cows 



Cows that exceed the requirement by less than 50%, 1,534; 65% of total number 



Both sire and dam in register. . . 
Neither sire nor dam in register. 

Sire in register, dam not 

Dam in register, sire not 



Totals . 



1,534 



780 


51 


177 


12 


425 


27 


152 


10 



100. 



Cows that exceed the requirement by 50% to 100%, 724; 30% of total number 



Both sire and dam in register. . . 
Neither sire nor dam in register. 

Sire in regi^^ter, dam not 

Dam in register, sire not 



Totals , 



438 


61 


53 


7 


169 


23 


64 


9 



Cows that exceed the requirement bv 100%, and more, 113; 5% of total number 



Both sire and dam in register. . . 
Neither sire nor dam in register. 

Sire in register, dam not 

Dam in register,, sire not 



Totals. 



86 


76. 


4 


4. 


16 


14. 


7 


6. 



IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PERFORMANCE 



145 



tically two-thirds have both parents in the register, and 
practically all have one parent in the register, but three 
in 100 having neither parent in the register. 

In the first division of the re-entries (p. 144) more than 
one-half of the cows have both parents in the register and all 
but 12 in 100 have at least one parent in the register. 
Again, observe how this percentage increases as the 
standard is raised, until in the third division more than 
three-fourths of the cows have both parents in the regis- 
ter. These tables emphasize the fact that if we wish to 
select the highest producing cows we must look for them 
among the offspring of advanced register animals. 




Fig. 50 — Holstein-Friesian Cow "Gi.ista Eglantine" 
25.912 pounds of butter fat in seven days. 



Holstein-Friesian cows with records as breeders. — In 

this study the number of performing offspring produced 
by cows with records is of much importance. To illus- 
trate this a tabulation is made of all the Holstein-Friesian 
cows that are the dams of two or, more advanced register 
daughters. On May i, 1913, there were 4,183 such dams. 



146 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



For convenience of study this table (see below) is divided into 
four parts, the first division including those dams with two 
and three daughters, the second those with four and five, 
the third those with six and seven, and the fourth division 

Breeding of Holstein-Friesian Cows with 2 and 3, 4 
AND 5, 6 and 7, and 8 A. R. O. Daughters* 



Character of matings 



Number 
of cows 



Per cent, 
of cows 



Cows with 2 and 3 A. R. O. daughters, 3,786; 90.5% of total number 



Cows with 2 and 3 A. R. O. D and records. 
Cows with 2 and 3 A. R. O. D no records. . 



Totals. 




57.6 
42.4 



Cows with 4 and 5 A. R. O. daughters, 375; 9% of total number 



Cows with 4 and 5 A. R. O. D and records. . 
Cows with 4 and 5 A. R. O. D no records . . . 



Totals. 




76.2 
23.8 



Cows with 6 and 7 A. R. 0. daughters. 


20; .4% of total number 


Cows with 6 and 7 A. R. O. D and records. . . 
Cows with 6 and 7 A. R. O. D no records. . . . 

Totals 


13 
2 

20 


90.0 
10.0 

100.0 



Cows with 8 or more A. R. O. daughters, 2 



Cows with 8 or more A. R. O. D and records. . 
Cows with 8 or more A. R. O. D no records. . . 



Totals . 




100.0 




*Made up from Vol. 24 of the Holstein-Friesian advanced register. 

those with eight daughters each. The cows are arranged 
in two classes, those that have records and those that 
have no records. 

In the first division, dams with two and three advanced 
register daughters, approximately 6 out of lo, them- 



IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PERFORMANCE I47 

selves have records. Observe how this number increases 
as the number of calves produced increases. In the 
second division, dams w^ith four and five advanced regis- 
ter daughters, three-fourths have records ; in the third 
division, dams w^ith six and seven daughters in the ad- 
vanced register, nine-tenths have records ; and in the 
fourth division, dams v^ith eight daughters in the regis- 
ter, all have records. This is significant in a considera- 
tion of the transmission of high-producing qualities from 
the maternal parent to the female offspring. It gives 
conclusive evidence of the desirability of high-producing 
dams in breeding for high production among dairy cattle. 

Breeding of advanced register bulls. — Among dairy 
cattle the bulls are admitted to the advanced register on 
the performance of their daughters. When a Holstein- 
Friesian bull has four daughters in the register, he is 
admitted automatically. From the breeder's point of 
view such data are even more valuable than when an 
animal is entered on its own performance, as such in- 
dicates breeding ability. In this connection, therefore, 
the breeding of bulls that make the requirements is of 
vital importance. To illustrate this a tabulation is made 
of all of the Holstein-Friesian bulls admitted on the per- 
formance of their daughters up to May 15, 1912 (p. 148). 
There were 1,191 bulls thus admitted, 126 having been en- 
tered before the present standard was adopted. Since the 
requirements for admission are not difficult the table is 
divided into five parts, the first division including those 
with 4 to 14 daughters each; the second, those with 15 
to 24 daughters; the third, those with 25 to 49 daugh- 
ters ; the fourth, those with 50 to 74 daughters ; and the 
fifth, those with 75 or more daughters each. The bulls 
are arranged in four classes according to the character of 
the mating. 

This table is significant in a consideration of methods 
for obtaining transmitting efficiency. In the first divi- 
sion, sires with 4 to 14 A. R. O. daughters, 50 per cent 



Breeding of Holstein-Friesian Sires with 4 to 14, 

15 TO 24, 25 TO 49, 50 TO 74, AND 75 OR MORE A. R. O. 

Daughters. 



Character of matings 



Number of 
sires 



Per cent 
of sires 



Sires with 4 to 14 A. R. O. daughters 948; 79.6% of all with records 



Both sire and dam in register... 
Neither sire nor dam in register. 

Sire in register, dam not 

Dam in register, sire not 



Totals. 




50.8 
20.2 
20.2 



Sires with 15 to 24 A. R. O. daughters 155; 13.1% of all with records 



Both sire and dam in register. . . 
Neither sire nor dam in register. 

Sire in register, dam not 

Dam in register, sire not 



Totals. 




76.1 
2.6 
10.3 
11.0 

100.0 



Sires with 25 to 49 A. R. O. daughters 65; 5.4% of all with records 



Both sire and dam in regi-ter. . . 
Neither sire nor dam in register. 

Sire in register, dam not 

Dam in register, sire not 



Totals 




72.3 

.0 

12.3 

15.4 

100.0 



Sires with 50 to 74 A. R. O. daughters 13; 1.1% of all with records 



Both sire and dam in register... 
Neither sire nor dam in register. 

Sire in register, dam not 

Dam in register, sire not 



Totals. 




77.0 

.0 

7.7 

15.3 

100.0 



Sires with 75 or more A. R. O. daughters 10; .8% of all with records 



Both sire and dam in register. . . 
Neither sire nor dam in register. 

Sire in register, dam not 

Dam in register, sire not 



Totals. 



10 


100.0 





.0 





.0 





.0 



148 



IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PERFORMANCE 



149 



have both parents in the register, 20 per cent have sire 
only, and 9 per cent have dam only, while but 20 per cent 
have neither parent in the register. Note how^ rapidly the 
per cent v\^ith both parents in the register increases, and 
how^ those with neither parent in the register decreases. 
In the second division, sires with 15 to 24 A. R. O. 
daughters, 76 per cent have both parents in the register, 
10 per cent have sire only, and 11 per cent have dam only. 




Fig. 51 — Holste.n'-Fr.esian Cows with High Records of Performances 
25.282, 24.416, 25.912 and 24.129 pounds respectively of butter fat in seven days, 

whereas but 2.6 have neither parent in the register. In 
the third and fourth divisions, sires with 25 to 49 and 50 
to 74 A. R. O. daughters respectively, about 75 per cent 
have both parents in the register, and all, or 100 per cent, 
have at least one parent in the register. Likewise in 
the last division, sires with 75 or more A. R. O. daugh- 
ters, all have both parents in the register. 

Thus there is not a bull in the advanced register with 
50 or more daughters to his credit but that has at least 



I50 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



one parent in the register. Further, there is not a bull 
with 75 or more daughters in the register but that has 
both parents in the register. This gives conclusive evi- 
dence of the advantage of a record of performance for 
the guidance of breeders in selecting their animals. 

Registered animals without registered parents. — As 
the advanced register for Holstein-Friesian cattle was 
established in 1894, it must of necessity follow that the 
animals admitted the first few years had neither parent 
in the register. As years went by the offspring of the 
animals first admitted made records and were themselves 
admitted, with the result that, at present, after the regis- 
ter has been in existence for a number of years an increas- 
ing percentage of the animals in the register has parents 
in the register also. To illustrate this a tabulation is made 
of all of the Holstein-Friesian bulls admitted to the ad- 
vanced register each year for the decade ending May 15, 
1912. This includes a total of i.i 15 bulls. These animals 
are arranged in four classes as before. 



Breeding of Holstein-Friesian Bulls Admitted to the 
Advanced Register Each Year for the Decade End- 
ing May 15, 1912. 





Both sire 


Neither sire 


Sire 


in 


Dam in 






and dam 


nor dam 


register 


register 






in register 


in register 


dam 


not 


sire not 


Total 


Year 


















number 




Num- 


Per 


Num- 


Per 


Num- 


Per 


Num- 


Per 


of bulls 




ber 


cent 


ber 


cent 


ber 


cent 


ber 


cent 






of 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of 






bulls 


bulls 


bulls 


bulls 


bulls 


bulls 


bulls 


bulls 




1903 


9 


22 


16 


39 


11 


27 


5 


12 


41 


1904 


15 


32 


16 


32 


11 


22 


7 


14 


50 


1905 


28 


43 


19 


29 


13 


20 


5 


8 


65 


1906 


32 


41 


16 


20 


26 


33 


5 


6 


79 


1907 


37 


49 


14 


18 


16 


21 


9 


12 


76 


1908 


47 


54 


20 


23 


18 


20 


3 


3 


88 


1909 


57 


55 


20 


19 


17 


16 


10 


10 


104 


1910 


83 


63 


12 


9 


27 


20 


11 


8 


133 


1911 


141 


67 


22 


10 


35 


16 


16 


7 


219 


1912 


175 


67 


26 


10 


33 


13 


26 


10 


260 



IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PERFORMANCE 151 

In lo years the percentage of bulls in the register that 
have both parents in the register has increased from 22 
to 67, while the percentage vi^ith neither parent has de- 
creased from 39 to 10 in the same period. The percent- 
age with but one parent in the register has also slightly 
decreased. 

There are many Holstein-Friesian cattle not in the 
advanced register, simply because they have never been 
tested. They could make the requirements for admis- 
sion, but are not given an opportunity. Thus the per- 
centage of animals in the register without advanced 
register parents will simply depend upon the number of 
animals admitted from without. 

The number of cattle tested for admission to the ad- 
vanced register is not large. During the past few years 
only about 13 per cent of the cows and 1.3 per cent of the 
bulls have been admitted to the register. This is sig- 
nificant. When the small number of cows tested and in 
the register is taken into account, and the large percent- 
age of high-producing animals coming from the register 
is considered, the chances of finding a maximum pro- 
ducer from without the register are not very encourag- 
ing. The breeder attempting to produce a cow capable 
of making a seven-day record of 35.3 pounds of fat, or a 
bull that can sire 100 or more advanced register daugh- 
ters, is likely to encounter much difficulty unless he 
selects parents from the advanced register. 

In this connection it may be stated that the advanced 
register plays no part in increasing the production of 
dairy cows ; it neither adds to nor detracts from produc- 
tion, but is simply an instrument in which records of per- 
formance are kept and from which records of transmitted 
efficiency can be obtained. 



CHAPTER XIV 

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO SELECTION THE 
RESULT OF PREPOTENCY 

The parents are not equally powerful in transmitting 
characters to their offspring. The parent that has the 
superior power in determining the characters of the oft"- 
spring is said to be prepotent. This is of much practical 
importance to the breeder because of the direct influence 
which it has upon improvement. It is our lack of 
definite understanding of factors governing prepotency, 
however, that is responsible for much of the discussion 
on the transmission of modified or "acquired" characters, 
sex limited inheritance and like subjects. While little 
understood, enough is known regarding prepotence to 
enable the skilled breeder to select animals possessing 
it with a reasonable degree of certainty. This is es- 
pecially true when records of performance are available. 

Prepotency is considered from two points of view, first, 
breed prepotency, by which is meant that animals of a 
breed are all possessed of much power in transmitting 
the characters of the breed; and, second, individual pre- 
potency, in which the individual has much power in trans- 
mitting its characters to the offspring. 

Breed prepotency. — There is much difference in the 
prepotency of the various breeds. This is clearly brought 
out when two distinct breeds are crossed. Among beef 
cattle, if a Hereford-Shorthorn cross is made, the most 
of the offspring will inherit the color and markings as 
well as the early-maturing qualities of the Hereford, 
whereas their general conformation and feeding quali- 
ties will be similar to that of the Shorthorn. Among 
sheep, the American Merino has much power in trans- 
mitting its characters when crossed upon other breeds, 

152 



IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PREPOTENCY 1 53 

and more especially when crossed upon grades. In fact, 
the prepotency of the pure-bred over the common animal 
is the significant factor in breed prepotency, as it enables 
us to quickly transform the common animal to the type 
of the breed from which pure-bred males have been 
selected. In this connection it must be remembered that 
some breeds are much more prepotent than others, and 
hence will effect changes more rapidly, whereas some 
breeds may be so low in their potency as to be unable 
to effect the desired changes. 

Individual prepotency, — This is of vastly more conse- 
quence to the animal breeder than breed prepotency. 
It is the agency through which individuals are 
improved, and hence lies at the base of both herd and 
breed development. Indeed, individual prepotency and 
selection, based on records of performance, are the most 
powerful agencies for the improvement of herds as well 
as the several breeds of farm animals, at the command 
of the breeder. 

So influential are the more prepotent animals that we 
are likely to confuse prepotency and fertility. This is 
often due to the fact that the prepotent animal is given 
the better opportunity, because of the individual merit 
of his offspring, which naturally increases the number of 
his get. However, an individual may be very prepotent 
and low in fertility. In such cases it is often a question 
as to the wisdom of continuing the potent animal in 
service, as no animal should be retained for breeding that 
is not fairly fertile. 

Prepotency among horses. — The significance of selec- 
tion, the result of prepotency in general improvement, 
is clearly and forcibly illustrated in the case of speed 
records among Standardbred horses. Of the 10,000 
stallions siring the 50,000 performers at the close of 1913 
there were 11 that had sired 150 or more performers each, 
their average being 185. These phenomenal sires, there- 
fore, were 37 times as efficient as the average sire. So 



154 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



important are these sires in a study of prepotency that 
a tabulation is made, giving their name, stud book num- 
ber and their sire and dam as well as the number of their 
performing get, both trotters and pacers. 

Breeding of ii Phenomenal Sires, Including the 
Number of Their Performers — Trotters and Pacers* 









Trot- 


Pac- 




Name of horse 


Sire 


Grandsire 


ters 


ers 


Total 


Allerton 5128 


Jay Bird 5060 


George Wilkes 519 


199 


58 


257 


Gambetta Wilkes 


George Wilkes 


Hambletonian 10 


110 


121 


231 


4659 


519 










Onward 1411 


George Wilkes 
519 


Hambletonian 10 


155 


45 


200 


Red Wilkes 1749 


George Wilkes 
519 


Hambletonian 10 


133 


45 


178 


McKinney 8818 


Alcyone 732 


George Wilkes 519 


142 


34 


176 


Alcantara 729 


George Wilkes 
519 


Hambletonian 10 


121 


54 


175 


Nutwood 600 


Belmont 64 


Abdallah 15 


137 


37 


174 


Ashland Wilkes 


Red Wilkes 


George Wilkes 519 


93 


76 


169 


2291 


1749 










Electioneer 125 


Hambletonian 

10 
Pancost 1439 


Abdallah 1 


158 


2 


160 


Prodigal 6000 


Woodford Mambrino 


127 


28 


155 






345 








Baron Wilkes 


George Wilkes 


Hambletonian 10 


119 


35 


154 


4758 


519 










Total 






1494 


535 


2029 


Average 






136 


49 


185 



*Made up from Vol. 29, Wallace's Year Book. 

This table is significant, not alone in the number of 
performing offspring represented, but in the breeding of 
the phenomenal sires. George Wilkes is the sire of five 
of these animals and the grandsire of three others ; while 
one of the remaining animals is sired by Hambletonian 
ID, the sire of George Wilkes, another by Belmont, a 
grandson of Hambletonian lo and the remaining one 
traces to Hambletonian lo in the maternal line of descent. 
Of this number, those that were sired by George Wilkes 
produced 638 trotters and 300 pacers, a total of 938 per- 
formers, which is almost one-half of the entire number. 

In a study of all such data, and in the comparison of 



IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PREPOTENCY 



155 



individuals there are three factors that must be borne in 
mind : First, some individuals w^ere too young for their 
entire breeding record to be completed ; second, some had 
access to better mares and more of them than did others ; 
and, third, some had enjoyed less opportunity than others 
ov^ing to their racing engagements. 

The famous grandsires. — A study of the more important 
grandsires shows even more remarkable results. There are 
seven stallions in the list that have the distinction of 
being grandsire of over 1,000 performers each. So im- 
portant are these in a consideration of prepotency that a 
tabulation is made of them on page 156 showing the number 
of performers got by each, the number of sons that are sires 
of performers and the number sired, the number of daugh- 
ters that are dams of performers and the number 
dammed, also the total number of performers produced 
by the sons and daughters. 




Fig. 52 — Standarubred Stallion "McKinney," 2:111,4 



It is interesting to observe that five of the famous 
grandsires are also phenomenal sires, although the 
animals that stand first and third as grandsires are not 
represented in the table of phenomenal sires. The seven 



156 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



Famous Grandsires Having More Than i,ooo Perform- 
ers Each in the Second Generation* 









Sons and 


Daughters and 




Name ot 


Year 
born 


Per- 
formers 


their performers 


their performers 


Total per- 


grandsire 










sons and 








Sires 


Per- 
formers 


Dams 


Per- 
formers 


daughters 


George Wilkes 


1856 


83 


103 


3,187 


110 


207 


3,394 


Electioneer. . . . 


1868 


160 


104 


1,851 


115 


185 


2,036 


Hambletonian 


1849 


40 


150 


1,717 


80 


119 


1,836 


Nutwood 


1870 


174 


155 


1,306 


177 


385 


1,691 


Red Wilkes 


1874 


178 


149 


995 


174 


297 


1,292 


Onward 


1875 


200 


176 


997 


194 


288 


1,285 


Baron Wilkes 


1882 


154 
989 


75 
912 


870 


109 
959 


239 
1,720 


1,109 


Total 


10,923 


12,643 


Average 




141 


130 


1,560 


137 


246 


1,806 



*Made up from Vol. 29, Wallace's Year Book. 

stallions are the sires of 912 sons that sired 10,923 per- 
formers, and of 959 daughters that are the dams of 1,720 
performers — in all 12,643, one-fourth of all performers 
listed in the year book. In this consideration the rela- 
tive age is an important factor. No doubt v.hen the 
breeding records of some of the younger horses that have 
had better opportunities are complete w^e shall have a 
large increase in the number of stallions with 1,000 or 
more performers in the second generation. 

Breeders of performers and breeders of breeders. — A 
study of the records of performance among horses re- 
veals the fact that some individuals are notably sires of 
speed w^hich ends in that generation, v^hile other animals, 
not especially notable for siring performers themselves, 
yet produce sires and dams of extreme breeding pov^^er. 
Possibly this is due, in part at least, to the fact that the 
animals possessing extreme speed are v^^orth more as 
racers, and thus are not given the same chance in the 
stud as some other well-bred animals which lack the ex- 
treme speed and, therefore, are worth more for breeding 
than for racing. The fact that some animals seem to be 



IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PREPOTENCY 



157 



breeders of performers, while others are breeders of 
breeders, is well illustrated in the following tabulation 
which includes the seven famous grandsires as well as 
the II phenomenal sires noteworthy for their performers. 



Phenomenal Sires and Famous Grandsires and the 
Number of Their Performing Descendants* 









Sons and 


Daughters and 










their performers 


their performers 


Total per- 


Name of horse 


Year 
bom 


Per- 
formers 










formers of 












sons and 








Sires 


Per- 
formers 


Dams 


Per- 
formers 


daughters 


Allerton 


1886 


257 


85 


313 


61 


82 


395 


Gambetta"Wilke.s 


1881 


231 


74 


345 


90 


152 


497 


Onward 


1875 


200 


176 


997 


194 


288 


1 285 


Red Wilkes 


1874 


178 


149 


995 


174 


297 


1,292 


McKinney 


1887 


176 


48 


318 


31 


38 


356 


Alcantara 


1876 


175 


79 


490 


97 


183 


673 


Nutwood 


1870 


174 


155 


1,305 


177 


385 


1,691 


Ashland Wilkes 


1882 


169 


57 


259 


SO 


60 


319 


Electioneer 


1868 


160 


104 


1,851 


115 


185 


2,036 


Prodigal 


1886 


155 


15 


62 


41 


61 


123 


Baron Wilkes 


1882 


154 


75 


870 


109 


239 


1,109 


George Wilkes 


1856 


83 


103 


3,187 


110 


207 


3,394 


Hambletonian 


1849 


40 

2,152 


150 
1,270 


1,717 
12,710 


80 
1,329 


119 

2,296 


1,836 


Total 


15,006 


Average 




165 


97 


977 


102 


177 


1,154 



*Made up from Vol. 29, Wallace's Year Book. 

Compare the performers, those gotten directly, with 
the total performers of sons and daughters, recording 
the second generation of performers. It will be observed 
that seven of the 13 individuals stand high in the second 
generation, while six are low, although in some cases 
their ages are against their second generation record. 
Attention is especially directed to Allerton and Gambetta 
Wilkes, the most famous producers of speed the world 
has seen, although their sons and daughters stand low 
as breeders, and to George Wilkes and Hambletonian, 
neither famous as direct producers of speed, probably 
due to lack of opportunity, but both are phenomenal as 
breeders of sires and dams of speed. 



I5<^ BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

111 this connection, it is interesting to note that while 
there are 30 stallions with 100 or more performers to 
their credit, there are but six with 100 or more sires, two 
of which are not included in the list of 30 stallions. 
There are but 56 stallions that have sired 25 or more sires 
of performers, whereas there are approximately 300 
stallions that have sired 25 or more performers. 

Prepotency among dairy cattle. — The records of per- 
formance among dairy cattle furnish us better examples 
of the importance of prepotency in improvement than do 
those of speed among horses. This is due to the fact that 
milk and butter-fat production are connected with breed- 
ing, whereas the racing engagements of the horse interfere 
with the breeding. In the dairy cow, therefore, perform- 
ance and breeding are associated ; while in the race horse 
they are antagonistic. On the other hand, at the present 
time the dairy cows are handicapped by the fact that we 
have only a few years' records, as the advanced register 
was not established until 1894, whereas we have authen- 
tic race records since the year 1839. 

While advanced register records are of recent origin, 
the cows are gaining rapidly on the horses. On May i, 
1913, there were 22,y20 Holstein-Friesian cows in the 
advanced register. These were sired by 5,720 bulls, an 
average of slightly less than four performers to the sire. 
At the same time, there were 10 bulls that had sired 75 
or more performers, their average being 97. These 
famous bulls therefore, were twenty-five times as efficient 
as the average sire. The tabulation on page 159 gives the 
names of these famous bulls, their advanced register num- 
ber and the number of their performing get, together with 
the number of sons that are sires of advanced register 
daughters and number of daughters that are dams of 
advanced register daughters . 

The extended pedigree of each of these famous bulls 
reveals the fact that they trace to De Kol 2d in much 
the same manner that the phenomenal sires trace to 



IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PREPOTENCY 



159 



Famous Bulls with Number of Advanced Register 
Daughters and Number of Sons and Daughters 
That Are Sires or Dams of Advanced Register Cows* 



Name of bull 



Lord Netherland De Kol 245 

Hengerveld De Kol 136 

De Kol 2d's Butter Boy 3d 147 

Paul Beets De Kol 113 

Homestead Girl De Kol Sarcastic Lad 51! 
Pietertje Hengerveld's Count De Kol 135. 

Aaggie Cornucopia Johanna Lad 473 

King of the Pontiacs 702 

King Segis 558 

Pontiac Komdyke 177 

Total 

Average 



Number 
advanced 

register 
daughters 



Sons 
that are 
A. R. O. 

sires 



Daughters 
that are 
A. R. O. 

dams 



120 

116 

113 

103 

99 

98 

90 

82 

77 

77 

975 
97 



31 
54 
74 
40 
19 
46 
41 
27 
50 
36 

418 
42 



99 
73 
47 
80 
23 
47 
41 
10 
23 
36 

479 
48 



*Made up from Vol. 24, Holstein-Friesian advanced register. 

George Wilkes. De Kol 2d appears at least once in the 
first four generations of ancestors in each of the famous 
bulls except the last two. 

Sires of performers and sires of breeders. — While the 
advanced register is of too recent origin to show famous 
grandparents, yet the records reveal the fact that some 
bulls are notable sires of performers which end in that 
generation, while others are remarkable for producing 
sires and dams of extreme breeding power. This is well 
illustrated in the tabulation on page 160, which includes all 
bulls with 100 or more advanced register daughters. 
While the bulls involved are few in number, the results 
are significant. In all these studies it should be remem- 
bered that marked prepotency is not of great frequency, 
and that some individuals enjoy much greater advantages 
than others. 

Compare the performers, those gotten directly, with 
the total performers of sons and daughters recorded in 
the second generation. It will be observed that tw^o of 
the four stand high in the second generation, while two 



i6o 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



Famous Bulls and the Number of Their Performing 

Descendants* 









Sons and 
their 


Daughters 
and their 


Total 
per- 
formers 
of sons 


Name 


Year 
born 


Per- 
form- 
ers 


pe 'formers 


performers 




Sires 


Per- 
form- 


Dams 


Per- 
form- 


and 
daugh- 
ters 










ers 




ers 




Lord Netherland De Kol 
Hengerveld De Kol 
De Kol 2nd's Butter Boy 3rd 
Paul Beets De Kol 


1894 
1897 
1897 
1893 


120 
116 
113 
103 


31 

54 
74 
40 


100 
447 
581 
162 


99 

73 
47 
80 


]72 

132 

73 

157 


222 
579 
654 
319 


Total 
Average 




452 
113 


199 
49 


1,290 
322 


299 

75 


484 
121 


1,774 
443 



*Made up from Vol. 24, Holstein-Friesian Advanced Register. 

are very low. Attention is especially directed to Lord 
Netherland De Kol, who leads the list of performers, yet 
in the second generation of offspring he stands at the 
foot of the list and is far below De Kol 2d's Butter Boy 
3d, who leads the list as a grandsire of performers, fol- 
lowed bv Henp-erveld De Kol. 




Fig. 53 — Polled Durham Bull "The Confessor" 



IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PREPOTENCY l6l 

Performers and prepotency. — Again we come to a con- 
sideration of the relation between performance and breed- 
ing powers. In the discussion of improvement due to 
selection based on performance exa.nples were given 
showing that the best breeders were themselves per- 
formers, and in the above discussion it was stated that 
we have breeders of performers and breeders of breeders. 
The fact that we have individuals not especially note- 
worthy for getting performers themselves, yet producing 
sires and dams of extreme breeding power, such as 
George Wilkes and Hambletonian, as well as the fact 
that certain other animals are noted for getting perform- 
ers that end in that generation, such as the stallion, Aller- 
ton, and the bull. Lord Netherlan-d De Kol, has served 
to confuse both practical and scientific breeders. This 
has resulted in long-drawn discussion, each explaining 
his point of view. 

To get the matter clearly before us, let us make an- 
other tabulation (see next page) showing the breeding of 
the 1,191 Holstein-Friesian bulls admitted to the advanced 
register on the performance of their daughters. This is 
not a selected lot, but includes all bulls admitted to the 
register on the basis of performance up to May 15, 1912. 
For convenience of study we will divide the bulls into five 
classes as before : First, those with 4 to 14 daughters, 
inclusive, in the register; second, those with 15 to 24; 
third, those with 25 to 49; fourth, those with 50 to 74; 
and, fifth, those bulls with 75 and more daughters in the 
register. 

Observe how the percentage with both sire and dam 
in the register increases as the number of offspring per 
sire increases. Particular attention is called to the rapid 
decrease in percentage with neither sire nor dam in the 
register as the number of daughters in the register in- 
creases. There is not a single bull that has 25 daughters 



1 62 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



Breeding of Holstein-Friesian Bulls Admitted to the 
Advanced Register on the Basis of Performance Up 
to May 15, 1912* 





Both sire and 


Neither 


sire nor 


Sire in 


register 


Dam in register 


Number of 


dam in 


register 


dam in 


register 


dam 


not 


sire not 


registered 
















daughters 


















per sire 


Num- 


Per 


Num- 


Per 


Num- 


Per 


Num- 


Per 




ber 


cent. 


ber 


cent. 


ber 


cent. 


ber 


cent. 




of bulls 


of bulls 


of bulls 


of bulls 


of.bulls 


of bulls 


of bulls 


of bulls 


4 to 14 


482 


51 


192 


20 


191 


20 


83 


9 


IS to 24 


118 


76 


4 


3 


16 


10 


17 


11 


25 to 49 


47 


72 








8 


12 


10 


16 


50 to 74 


10 


77 








1 


8 


2 


15 


75 and up 


10 


100 





















*Made up from Vol. 24, Holstein-Friesian advanced register. 

in the register but that has at least one performing 
parent. Further, there is not a single Holstein-Friesian 
bull that has 75 daughters in the register but that has 
both of his parents in the register. 

The same is true of the dams of advanced register 
daughters. To illustrate this a similar tabulation is made 
of the breeding of all dams w^ith tv\^o or more registered 
daughters up to May 15, 1912. 

Breeding of Holstein-Friesian Cows with Two or 
More Advanced Register Daugpiters Up to May 15, 
1912* 



Number of 


Dams with records 


Dams with 


no records 


advanced register 
daughters per dam 


Number of 
daughters 


Per cent, of 
daughters 


Number of 
daughters 


Per cent, of 
daughters 


2 and 3 
4 and 5 
6 and 7 
8 


2,182 

286 

18 

2 


58 

76 

90 

100 


1,604 

89 

2 




42 

24 

10 





*Made up from Vol. 24, Holstein-Friesian advanced register. 



IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PREPOTENCY 



l6^ 



In a consideration of the relationship between perform- 
ance and breeding" power these tables are significant. 
Note how rapidly the percentage of daughters with dams 
with records increases as the number of daughters per 
dam increases; likewise the percentage decreases as 
rapidly when the dams have no records. This shows 
conclusively that the most prepotent animals descend 
from parents with records of performance without a 
single exception. 




U. 




Fig. 54. — Polled Durham Bull "Sultan's Creed'' 



Famous Holstein-Friesian cows. — In this connection 
the performance and breeding record of De Kol 2d 734 
and Belle Korndyke 13913 are of interest, as these are 
perhaps the two most famous cows of the breed, at least 
from the breeder's point of view. De Kol 26. has two 
daughters in the advanced registry, seven sons that are 
sires of advanced register daughters, and four daughters 



164 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



that are dams of registered daughters. Belle Korndyke 
has four daughters in the register, six sons that are sires 
of daughters in the register, and five daughters that are 
dams of registered daughters. Both of these cows were 
famous performers, De Kol 2d exceeding the require- 
ments for admission to the register by JJ per cent and 
holding the world's record for butter-fat yield from 1894 
to 1897; while Belle Korndyke exceeded the requirements 
by J2, per cent. The sons of these two cows proved re- 
markable breeders, as is illustrated in the accompanying tabu- 

Famous Holstein-Friesian Cows 
AND Male Descendants* 



Belle Korndyke 



Name of Bull 



Per- 


Sons 


Daugh- 


form- 


that are 


ters that 


ers 


sires 


are dams 


45 


8 


21 


1 


2 


1 


54 


11 


13 


6 


4 


1 


19 


11 


8 


77 


36 


36 


192 


,1 


80 



Belle Korndyke Beryl Wayne 
Belle Korndyke Butter Boy 
Earl Korndyke De Kol 
Karel Korndyke 
Korndyke Wayne Paul D. K. 
Pontiac Korndyke 



Total 



De Kol 2d 


Name of bull 


Per- 
form- 
ers 


Sons 

that are 

sires 


Daugh- 
ters that 
are dams 


De Kol 2d's Alban 
De Kol 2d's Butter Boy 
De Kol 2d's Butter Boy 2d 
De Kol 2d's Butter Boy 3d 
De Kol 2d's Mutual Paul 
De Kol 2d's Netherland 
De Kol 2d's Paul De Kol 

Total 


13 
12 
10 
113 
39 
22 
45 

254 


19 
20 
12 

74 
21 
21 

35 

202 


14 
18 
13 
47 
19 
28 
32 

171 



*Made up from Vol. 24, Holstein-Friesian advanced register. 



IMPROVEMENT DUE TO PREPOTENCY 165 

lation, which gives the number of daughters each son 
has in the advanced register; also the number of grand- 
sons that have sired registered daughters, as well as the 
number of granddaughters that are the dams of regis- 
tered daughters. 

Prepotency in sex. — There is a general belief that the 
sire is prepotent over the dam. In practice this is often 
the case, for the sire should be and usually is the better 
bred of the two parents. There is much larger oppor- 
tunity for selection in males, because so few are needed 
in the breeding operations. One sire can serve from 10 
to 100 females, depending on the class of animals. Thus 
we can, and usually do, discard nine-tenths, and even 
more, of all the males born. In most classes of farm 
animals a very large percentage of the females are 
needed to maintain the animal population. This should 
and often does result in the better class of males than 
females, which accounts for the seeming potency of males. 

We are often impressed with the resemblances between 
ofTspring and the sire. This is due to the fact that the 
sire influences the blood of so many offspring, whereas 
the dam influences the blood of but one in horses and 
cattle and but few in sheep and swine. Thus, the breeder 
who wishes to give his animals the most benefit possible 
of good blood at the least expense will, of course, pro- 
vide it through the sire's side. For purely economic rea- 
sons, therefore, sires in general are prepotent over dams 
in general. On the other hand, where conditions such 
as breeding and opportunity are similar, records of per- 
formance among horses and dairy cattle fail to show one 
sex prepotent over the other. 



CHAPTER XV 

IMPROVEMENT DUE TO ACCUMULATIVE 
DEVELOPMENT 

While the term accumulative development has been 
given a variety of meanings, here it is employed to denote 
the general advance made by the offspring over the 
parent. It is applied to all advances, v^^hether large or 
small, and of w^hatever origin. True offspring may and 
surely will decline unless the parents are judiciously se- 
lected, so that we often have accumulative decline. And 
in the case of some economic characters that are nega- 
tively correlated, as in the case of early maturity and 
high fertility, as v^ell as high egg production and consti- 
tutional vigor, it may be difficult in an exact sense to 
distinguish between breed development and breed decline, 
for as one character improves, the other may become less 
efficient. Here, however, is where selection proves the 
key to the situation. If the herd has been properly 
founded, a few individuals will show advancement in both 
characters, and they alone should be retained for breed- 
ing and all others should be eliminated. If, perchance, 
none of the individuals in a given herd show improve- 
ment in both characters, it indicates a defective founda- 
tion and lack of judicious selection in the original breed- 
ing animals. 

Modifying characters. — Scientific breeders and biol- 
ogists generally have entered into an unprecedented dis- 
cussion over methods of modifying or increasing the 
efficiency of particular characters. This discussion in- 
volves the probable inheritance of modified or "acquired" 
characters. Students of breeding are about equally 
divided over the question, one-half stating that much of 

166 



IMPROVEMENT DUE TO ACCUMULATIVE DEVELOPMENT 167 

the improvement attained has been due to the offspring 
inheriting, in part at least, certain modifications de- 
veloped by the parent, the other half maintaining that 
there can be no such thing as the transmission of a modi- 
fied character. This discussion is involved in a maze of 
definitions, one side reading certain meanings into words 
which best suit its argument. Thus the discussion is 
largely academic, even though the principle involved 
may be of importance. 

It is not proposed to enter into this matter further than 
to present the conditions as they actually exist for the 
guidance of animal breeders. Of course it is frankly ad- 
mitted that a more definite knowledge concerning the 
control of characters that pass from parent to offspring 
would be invaluable, but it seems that much of the 
present discussion is mystifying rather than clarifying 
the field for the practical animal breeder. 

Modified character in heredity. — As brought out in the 
discussion of the determiners of heredity, there are two 
views concerning the ap- 
pearance and transmission 
of modified characters. 
According to Darwin, the 
determiners of heredity 
are given off from the 
body cells and dispersed 
throughout the system, a 
part of the determiners 
collecting in the sexual 
organs, while according to fig. ss-suffolk stall.on "Wests.de 
Weismann the determin- chieftain" 

ers of heredity proceed 

from the germ plasm, the hereditary substance of the 
germ cells. These theories, or modifications of them, 
have attracted widespread attention because of the as- 
sumption that if we accept the Darwin theory it is easy to 
explain the possibility of a modification or "acquired" char- 




l68 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

acter being inherited, whereas if we accept the Weis- 
mann theory it is difficult to understand how a modifi- 
cation acquired by the parent can be transmitted to the 
offspring. 

Interesting as this matter is to the student of genetics, 
it is only of secondary importance to the practical breeder, 
who is interested primarily in results. According to one 
theory, when conditions are favorable the modification 
originates spontaneously in the individual itself, while 
according to the other the modification originates spon- 
taneously in the germ cells, so that when the animal is 
born it is capable of undergoing certain modifications 
under suitable environment. In practice it makes little 
difference which theory is accepted ; in fact, this is the 
very reason why each theory has such strong advocates. 
The point for the breeder to keep clearly in mind is the 
fact that suitable environment is required for the de- 
velopment of the modification, whatever its origin. 

Accumulative development in the trotter. — For more 
than a century trotting horses have been bred for the im- 
provement, of the speed character. In the discussion on 
causes of variations it was indicated that the environ- 
ment, particularly the care, training and management, 
resulted in the development of all of the possibilities 
with which the animal was born, which of necessity 
brought out the wide variation among trotters, while in 
the discussion on the influence of time records it was 
clearly shown that general advancement was accom- 
plished by eliminating the slow and mating the fast, 
which continued from generation to generation, resulting 
in some speed marvels. 

The gradual reduction in the time of the trotter gives 
a good example of accumulative development. This is 
illustrated in the following tabulation, which gives the 
reduction in time for a mile track with horses in harness 
during the past century. The table gives the name of the 
horse, place of the race, time and date. 



improvement due to accumulative development 169 
Trotting Records Reduced 



Name of horse 


Race course 


Record 


Date 


Boston 


Philadelphia, Pa. 


2-'l«^ 


1810 


Trouble 


Jamaica, N. Y. 


2 43i 


1826 


Sally Miller 


Philadelphia, Pa. 


2:37 


1834 


Edwin Forest 


Philadelphia, Pa. 


2:36J 


1838 


Dutchman 


Hoboken, N. J. 


2-32 


1839 


Lady Suffolk 


Hoboken, N. J. 


2:20J 


1845 


Pelham 


Jamaica, N. Y. 


2-28 


1849 


Highland Maid 


Jamaica, N. Y. 


2:27 


1853 


Flora Temple 


Jamaica, N. Y. 


2:24 J 


1856 


Flora Temple 


Kalamazoo, Mich. 


2:19f 


1859 


Dexter 


Buffalo, N. Y. 


2:171 


1867 


Goldsmith Maid 


Milwaukee, Wis. 


2:17 


1871 


Goldsmith Maid 


Boston, Mass. 


2:14 


1874 


Rarus 


Buffalo, N. Y. 


2:13i 


1878 


St. Julien 


Oakland, Cal. 


2:121 


1879 


Maud S. 


Chicago, 111. 


2:10| 


1880 


Jay-Eye-See 


Providence, R. I. 


2:10 


1884 


Maud S. 


Cleveland, Ohio 


2:081 


1885 


Sunol 


Stockton, Cal. 


2:081- 


1891 


Nancy Hanks 


Terre Haute, Ind. 


2:04 


1892 


Alix 


Galesburg, 111. 


2:03f 


1894 


The Abbot- 


Terre Haute, Ind. 


2:03i 


1900 


Cresceus 


Columbus, Ohio 


2:02i 


1901 


Lou Dillon 


Readville, Mass. 


2:00 


1903 


Lou Dillon 


Memphis, Tenn. 


l:58i* 


1903 


Uhlan 


Memphis, Tenn. 


1:58 


1912 


Uhlan 


Memphis, Tenn. 


l:54it 


1913 



*Paced by runner to sulky carrying wind or dust shield. 
fPaced by runner to wagon. 



The trotting horse has increased its speed by one-third, 
in a century of racing. Just how much of this increase is 
due to breed improvement, how much to better methods 
of training, and how much is due to superior conditions 
generally, such as improved harness, sulkies and track, 
cannot be stated even approximately. In fact, it would 
avail us but little if we knew the relative influence of 
each, as all are essential to highest development. In 
this connection there are three facts to be remembered : 
First, the environment, such as the training and manage- 
ment, developed all of the potentialities with which the 
horse was born ; second, the records of performance en- 
abled us to know for a certainty which were slow and 
which were fast ; and, third, the elimination of the slow 
and the mating of the fast resulted in present efficiency. 



170 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

Accumulative development in the dairy cow. — An even 
more striking example of accumulative development is 
observed in the case of improvement among dairy cattle. 
This is because the characters, butter-fat and milk pro- 
duction, go hand in hand with breeding — in fact, they 
depend upon the normal functioning of the reproductive 
organs ; whereas, in the case of the horse, the develop- 
ment of speed and breeding are antagonistic, as racing 
interferes with breeding. 




Fig. 56 — Holstein-Friesian Cow "Gl. Omicron" and Daughter, "Gl. Eglantine'' 
25.282 and 25.912 pounds butter fat in seven days, respectively. 

Although the official testing of dairy cows has been in 
progress but two decades, great advancement has been 
made both in milk and butter-fat production, as is evidenced 
by the tabulation on the next page, which gives the in- 
crease in butter-fat production. The table includes the 
name of the highest yielding cow, her advanced register 
number, the name of the owner, the yield in milk and 
fat for seven consecutive days and the year in which the 
record was made. 

This shows phenomenal development, as the cow has 
increased her butter-fat yield by 60 per cent in less than 
two decades. Many factors are involved in this remark- 



IMPRO\EMENT DUE TO ACCUMULATIVE DEVELOPMENT I7I 

able improvement, but chief of them are suitable en- 
vironment and records of performance, v^^hich not only 
enable us to know^ the high producers from the low pro- 
ducers, but provide us with data whereby we can deter- 

Increase in Butter-Fat Production 





Advanced 




Butter 




Name of cow 


register 


Name of owner 


fat 
pounds 


Year 


Be Kol 2d 


412 


H. Stevens & Son 


21.261 


1894 


Netherland Hengerveld 


1,133 


H. Stevens & Son 


21.333 


1897 


Lilith Pauline De Kol 


1,415 


H. P. Roe 


22.589 


1901 


Mercedes Julip's Pietertje 


2,166 


T. S. Tompkins 


23.487 


1902 


Sadie Vale Concordia 


1,124 


McAdam & Von Hine 


24.508 


1903 


Aaggie Cornucopia Pauline 


1,933 


H. P. Roe 


27.459 


1904 


Colantha 4th's Johanna 


1,849 


W. J. Gillett 


28.176 


1907 


Grace Favne 2d's Homestead 


4,422 


H. A. Moyer 


28.440 


1909 


Pontiac Clothilde De Kol 2d 


5,275 


Stevens Brothers 


29.766 


1910 


Pontiac Pet 


6,168 


E. H. Dollar 


30.142 


1911 


Valdessa Scott 2d 


10,780 


Bernard Myer 


33.500 


1912 


K. P. Spring Farm Pontiac Lass 


11,168 


F. M. Jones 


35.343 


1912 



mine the animals that are actually producing" high-yield- 
ing offspring, as illustrated in the pedigree (p. 131). 
Such information is invaluable in selecting breeding 
animals, for we can discard the low producers and mate 
the high producers, which, in connection with more fa- 
vorable conditions, enables us to get even higher produc- 
ing cattle. 

Results accomplished. — When we consider the ances- 
tral forms from which our farm animals have been de- 
veloped, the results attained in individual instances seem 
truly phenomenal. The progenitor of the horse was a 
small, sure-footed but rough-gaited animal ; that of the 
cow, a small, active animal, requiring five or six years 
to mature and giving only enough milk to nourish the 
young; that of the sheep, a long-bodied, long-legged, 
sparsely covered animal, producing two or three pounds 
of coarse wool and requiring three or four years to reach 
maturity; and that of the pig, a ferocious light-bodied 



172 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



carnivore, requiring four years to attain maturity, while 
the wild fowls laid only sufficient eggs for a brood. 

From such ancestral horse forms descended the modern 
Thoroughbred, capable of running a mile in 1.37%; the 
modern pacer, able to negotiate a mile in 1.54^; the 
stylish, high-acting Hackney; the smooth-gaited saddler, 
capable of going a number of easy gaits ; as well as the 
ponderous drafter, often attaining a weight of more than 

I, TOO pounds at one year of 
age, more than 1,600 at two 
years, and more than a ton 
at three years of age. 

The cow forms gave us 
the modern dairy cow, ca- 
pable of producing annually 
28,000 to 30,000 pounds of 
milk and more than 1,000 
pounds of butter fat, which 
will churn out more than 
1,200 pounds of butter, as 
well as the modern beef 
cattle, frequently attaining 
a weight of 1,200 to 1,400 
pounds by the time the ani- 
mals reach 15 to 18 months 
of age. From the ancestral 
sheep forms descended the 
modern wool sheep, often 
shearing an annual clip of 
25 to 30 pounds, as well as 
mutton lambs capable of 
attaining a weight of 60 
pounds before they are 60 
days of age. From the 
swine forms descended the 
F,G. 57-H=GHEGc.pROBuaNaHENc, modern porker, capable of 

291 and303 eggs, respectively, in one yeor attammg a Weight of 3OO 




IMPROVEMENT DUE TO ACCUMULATIVE DEVELOPMENT 1/3 

pounds at six to eight months of age. The w^ild fowls' 
gave us the modern hen capable of laying 275 to 300 
eggs in the year as v^^ell as an economic meat-producing 
animal. 

Improvement a slow process. — While remarkable ad- 
vancement has been gained in increasing the efficiency 
of each class of farm animals, yet the improvement of 
economic characters is a slow^ process, requiring years 
of careful study and patient effort. When selection and 
improvement is limited to a single character, advance- 
ment may be fairly rapid at first, but as maximum ef- 
ficiency is approached, the rate of increase rapidly dimin- 
ishes, and improvement calls for greater effort on the 
part of the breeder. This is well illustrated in the case 
of milk and butter-fat production among Holstein-Fries- 
ian cattle, and speed development among English Thor- 
oughbred horses. Up to two decades ago little attention 
was given systematic attempts to improve Holstein- 
Friesian cattle. Thus when the advanced register was 
established the cattle responded admirably, increasing 
their production by 60 per cent in two decades. 

On the other hand, consider the case of recent speed 
records amon^ Thoroughbred horses. This English horse 



American Running Records Reduced, Mile Track 



Name of horse 


Race course 


Time 


Year 


Charley Bell 


Lexington, Ky. 


1:451 


1854 


Satallite 


Lexington, Ky. 




45 i 


1859 


Mammona 


Lexington, Ky. 




441 


1862 


Revolver 


Cincinnati, O. 




44 


1866 


Hertog 


Cincinnati, O. 




43 i 


1869 


Alarm 


Saratoga, N, Y. 




42? 


1872 


Gray Planet 


Saratoga, N. Y. 




42 J 


1874 


Searcher 


Lexington Ky. 




411 


1875 


Ten Broeck 


Hartford, Conn. 




39f 


1877 


Racine 


Washington Park. 111. 




391 


1890 


Chorister 


Morris Park, N. Y. 




39 i 


1893 


Libertine 


Harlem, III. 




38 J 


1894 


Voter 


Brighton Beach, N. Y. 




38 


1900 


Allan-a-Dale 


Washington Park, 111. 




37i 


1903 


Dick Wells 


Harlem, III. 




371 


1903 


Center Shot 


Santa Anita, Cal. 




37J 


1908 



174 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIM'ALS 



has been raced more or less systematically for three cen- 
turies, and recent progress in reducing the time record has 
been slow, as indicated by the preceding tabulation which 
gives the reduction for the last one-half century on a mile 
track . The table on page 173 gives the name of the horse, 
the place of the race, the time and date. 

The Thoroughbred horse has increased its speed by 
but eight per cent in one-half a century of racing. Dur- 
ing this same period the Standardbred, a comparatively 
new breed, has reduced its trotting record by 27 per cent 
(p. 169). 

Methods employed. — From the foregoing discussions 
on improvement due to selection based on records of per- 
formance, improvement due to selection the result of 

prepotency, as well as 
improvement due to ac- 
cumulative development, 
it must be clear that ef- 
ficiency depends largely 
on selection ; that judi- 
cious selection depends 
on an exact knowledge 
of development or per- 
formance ; and that the 
degree of development 
depends on the environ- 
ment, including training, 
management, and the 
like. This results in the development, and, therefore, the 
discovery and retention of the efficient, as well as the elim- 
ination of all others that lack ability to show improvement, 
which results in general advancement. This is con- 
tinued, and the acquirement or development of one gen- 
eration becomes, in part at least, a heritage of the next. 
In practice it matters not a whit whether the capacity 
for greater efficiency is due to a kind of mutant having 
its inception in the germ cells, or whether it arises spon- 




FiG. 58 — High Wool Yielding Ewe 
25 pounds at 15 months of age. 



IMPROVEMENT DUE TO ACCUMULATIVE DEVELOPMENT I75 

taneously in the body in the form of an "acquired" 
character. In his reasoning the student as well as the 
breeder may choose whichever horn of the dilemma he 
likes, but in practical operations it must be borne in mind 
that in the absence of suitable environment and judicious 
selection the capacity, whatever its origin and however 
controlled, cannot assert itself and will go unnoticed, and 
thus eventually be lost. 



CHAPTER XVI 
SYSTEMS OF BREEDING 

There are several systems of breeding, the advantage 
and disadvantage of which the breeder should fully com- 
prehend. This is particularly true of those systems that 
rapidly favor purifying the blood, as otherwise undesir- 
able attributes may be intensified along with desirable 
ones. Since the system to be employed will depend 
largely upon the purpose, the breeder should first of all 
have a clear idea of just what he is trying to do, and an 
accurate knowledge of the limitations of the various sys- 
tems, so that he may employ the one to achieve his pur- 
pose. 

Purposes in breeding. — There are two more or less dis- 
tinct purposes in breeding farm animals that should be 
clearly differentiated in the mind of the breeder. In the 
first place, animals are produced for immediate consump- 
tion, and in the second place, they are produced for 
breeding purposes. An attempt to improve those for 
immediate use may be defined as herd improvement; 
while the improvement of those for breeding purposes 
may be defined as breed improvement. 

In herd improvement the object is the betterment of 
the individual. This is purely commercial. It is, per- 
haps, the cheapest and most convenient of all forms of 
breeding and productive of the most rapid gains. On 
the other hand, in breed improvement, the object is the 
betterment of the entire strain or race. This is creative 
and constructive. It is, perhaps, the most expensive, 
although of the very highest style of finished breeding 
and calls for intelligent, painstaking effort, as in this 
case the breeder is a true leader in the improvement of 
types and breeds of farm animals. 

176 



SYSTEMS OF BREEDING 1 77 

Pure-bred breeding. — This system has for its purpose 
the propagation of animals for breeding purposes, and 
for the very highest type of production. When judi- 
ciously practiced it results in advancing excellence. This 
constitutes animal improvement in the true sense of the 
term and is the highest system of finished breeding. It 
has the disadvantage in that it is rather costly, especially 
when the purpose is to produce something better than 
ever existed before. This is because so few individuals 
materially excel their predecessors or their contemporaries, 
and so few of these can be relied upon to propagate their 
own excellence. 

If the purpose is only to multiply existing excellence, 
then pure-bred breeding is comparatively cheap, because 
a very large percentage of properly selected purely bred 
animals may be depended upon to equal the excellence 
of their predecessors. Here is where the commercial 
aspects of pure-bred breeding works to the detriment 
of the system. 

Purely bred animals command a premium on the mar- 
ket irrespective of excellence, hence practically all pure- 
bred animals are preserved, and there is utter lack of 
proper selection. This often operates to the detriment 
of the system. Many purely bred animals are retained 
in our breeding herds simply because they are pure bred. 
Frequently they have no other meritorious characteristics 
to commend them. 

Because of the demand for purely bred animals for 
breeding purposes the offspring are in great demand, 
and this system may prove very profitable, particularly 
if the breeder is so located as to be able to dispose of the 
surplus stock to advantage. Thus pure-bred breeding 
commends itself to those who have the capital and ex- 
perience to go forward with it. 

Perhaps the strongest argument in favor of the breed- 
ing of purely bred animals lies in the fact that it serves 
to stimulate the breeder to improved methods of care 



178 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



and management. He takes much more interest in the 
work, and studies the individual animals very carefully, 
which leads to general improvement of the herd. 

Grading. — This consists in mating a common animal 
with a purely bred animal. The pure bred may be either 
sire or dam, but for economic reasons it is usually the 




Fig. 59 — Brown Swiss Bull "Myone Boy'' 



sire. This system of breeding is inexpensive, although 
it can be used only in herd improvement. It is the 
method to recommend to the great mass of breeders, 
especially beginners, even though they eventually intend 
to engage in the business of breeding pure-bred animals. 
There is no cheaper, quicker or more thorough way to 
become familiar with a breed than through a familiarity 
with its grades. Further, in a few generations, grades 
may be so improved as to be practically equal to pure 
breds for immediate consumption, although they will be 
worthless for breeding purposes. 



SYSTEMS OF BREEDING 1 79 

The great advantage of grading is that it is inexpen- 
sive, at least when accomplished with the sire. A pure- 
bred bull in a herd of 25 common cows will give each 
calf in the herd a pure-bred sire, thus making "half 
bloods" of the entire crop of calves. If the grading were 
attempted in the other way it would require 25 purely 
bred cows and the calves would show no more improve- 
ment. In fact, if the improvement were accomplished 
with the cows, it would be in 25 lines, each with its shade 
of difference, and not in one line, as would be the case 
were the improvement done with a bull. This is a sig- 
nificant factor when we consider the value of uniformity 
among all classes of farm animals. 

The chief disadvantage in grading is that the system is 
not likely to be followed. The first results are likely to 
be so satisfactory that the breeder is almost certain to 
choose a promising grade male for a sire, because he 
looks as good as a pure bred, whereupon by the law of 
ancestral heredity all further improvement stops except 
that due to selection and management. 

Cross-breeding. — This consists in mating two distinct 
breeds or families. It is a powerful means of inducing 
variability, and can be used, with success, only in the 
propagation of animals for immediate consumption. Up 
to the time of Bakewell, however, it was the favorite 
system of breeding farm animals, as it promoted con- 
stitutional vigor, increased the size, and favored fertility. 
This system rendered a valuable service in forming new 
breeds. Indeed, but few breeds of farm animals have 
been evolved without more or less cross-breeding among 
the foundation animals. 

At present this system is limited to the breeding of 
mules, the offspring of a jack and a mare, and to the 
production of animals for immediate consumption when 
two breeds possess the particular attributes that it is 
desired to secure in the offspring. Thus, in the pro- 
duction of beef say, one breed is noted for its excellent 



I50 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

form but is late maturing, whereas another breed is 
noted for its early maturity but possesses a poor con- 
formation. Should the cross between a male and a 
female of these breeds prove a fortunate nick, the young 
will inherit the desirable qualities of both parents. In 
this case the offspring will mature early and possess an 
excellent form, two attributes highly desirable among 
meat-producing animals. 

Since crossing favors variability, the cross-bred animal 
should never be used in breeding, as the results cannot 
be predicted, even approximately. Certain it is the off- 
spring will be exceedingly variable, an undesirable char- 
acteristic among animals intended for meat production. 

Line-breeding. — This consists of mating animals of a 
single line of descent. The system is used either in 
pure-bred breeding or in grading. In the former case 
the purpose is usually breed improvement, while in the 
latter it is herd improvement. This system is a favorite 
in establishing families or strains. In fact, few of the 
many breeds of farm animals, as well as few of the more 
noted families or strains of the various breeds, have 
been formed without more or less line-breeding. Since 
all breeds are exceedingly variable, for best results, it is 
not enough to confine selection to the limits of the 
breed. It must be limited to those lines that most nearly 
approach the ideal sought. 

Line-breeding is a very strong factor in securing uni- 
formity, as it combines animals very similar in their 
characteristics. It narrows the pedigree to a few and 
closely related lines of descent, increases the prepotency, 
and intensifies the characters, thus giving stability to 
the strain or breed. Line-breeding is free from many 
of the objections attending other systems of close breed- 
ing. It is conservative, and a very useful system for 
the improvement of farm animals. 

The chief disadvantage of line-breeding is that the 
breeder is likely to select his animals on the basis of 



SYSTEMS OF BREEDING l8l 

their pedigree, and thus fail to consider individual merit 
and performance. A line-bred pedigree is good or bad, 
according as the individual animals composing it are 
good or bad. The breeder who selects by pedigree alone 
w^ithout regard for individual merit or performance is 
likely to find his herd deteriorating in a few generations. 
This is especially true with this system of breeding, as 
both good and bad characters alike are advanced and 
intensified. 

Inbreeding. — This consists in mating animals closely 
related. It is line-breeding carried to its limits, and may 




Fig. 60 — Brown Swiss Cow "Arlena" 

be employed in grading to improve the herd, or in pure- 
bred breeding to improve the breed. This system has 
been used successfully in establishing, as well as improv- 
ing, practically all of the modern breeds of farm animals. 
It was first put into regular practice by Bakewell, and 
since his time has been employed more or less by all 
successful breeders. 



l82 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

There are three possible forms of inbreeding. First, 
mating sire with daughter, which results in offspring con- 
taining three-fourths of the blood lines of the sire. It is 
practiced when it is desired to eliminate the characters 
of the dam and intensify those possessed by the sire. 
Second, mating son with dam, giving rise to offspring 
containing three-fourths of the blood lines of the dam. 
This method is practiced when it is desired to eliminate 
the characters of the sire and intensify those of the dam. 
Third, mating brother and sister, a method which pre- 
serves the characters of both sire and dam. It is in- 
ferior to either of the other two methods in strengthening 
characters. 

This system has many advantages in the breeding of 
farm animals. It promotes uniformity by combining 
animals very similar in their general characters. It nar- 
rows the pedigree to few and closely related lines of 
descent (p. 120). It intensifies characters and increases 
the prepotency. It is recognized as the strongest of all 
breeding. Since the infusion of new blood lines shatters 
existing characters, no system equals inbreeding for per- 
petuating desirable characters, doubling up existing com- 
binations and retaining all there is of good in the excep- 
tional individual. 

Capable of producing the great improvement that it is, 
this system is not without its disadvantages. It does 
not respect characters, but intensifies both good and bad 
alike. If persisted in, it is likely to result in loss of fer- 
tility as well as constitutional vigor, which may quickly 
lead to breed extinction. When practicing inbreeding, 
therefore, too much importance cannot be placed upon 
the selection of animals for high fertility and much con- 
stitutional vigor. 

There are two situations in which it may be desirable 
to practice this system. One is in grading where we 
have a proven sire that is known to get excellent ofif- 
spring. It may be entirely permissible to mate him with 



SYSTEMS OF BREEDING 183 

his own daughters, rather than go to the expense of pro- 
curing a new sire, in which the breeding power is not 
known. The other is when we have an animal possess- 
ing a desirable attribute which we wish to retain. In 
this case the only way we can retain the desirable char- 
acter is to inbreed, otherwise it may be obliterated and 
lost. Many a breeder has found himself in just such a 
position, and by inbreeding has not only retained the de- 
sirable characters in question, but has advanced and in- 
tensified them, and in a few generations has succeeded in 
building up the best herds in the breed. 

Breeding from the best. — This consists in mating the 
best individuals without reference to blood lines. The 
system may be used in herd or breed improvement, 
though the advisability of employing it will depend in a 
large measure upon the situation. As a rule, when we 
are grading, it is advisable to procure the very best 
animals obtainable. On the other hand, when building 
up a pure herd, it is equally important to give due regard 
to the strain or family with which we are working. The 
breeder who breeds from the best without regard for 
family lines is likely to bring together a herd of mixed 
females, out of which nothing of note can be established. 
Crossing family lines brings about much the same con- 
dition as crossing breeds, only on a more limited scale. 

In constructive breeding ancestral lines must be given 
due consideration. To secure uniformity, to intensify 
desirable characters, and to increase the prepotency of 
our animals, we must keep the family strains pure. The 
introduction of new blood, even though superior, shatters 
existing characters, destroys uniformity and weakens 
prepotency. 

Up to the time of Bakewell, breeding from the best 
was the system used in both herd and breed improve- 
ment. At that time it was favored by the absence of 
written pedigrees. It often resulted in increased size. 
advanced fertility and strengthened the constitutional 



154 BiREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

vigor, but then, as now, it lessened uniformity and 
weakened prepotency, so that it was exceedingly uncer- 
tain as to just what the offspring would be like. 

Co-operative breeding. — This is a plan of procedure 
rather than a system of breeding, but it is mentioned in 
this connection to complete the list of methods. It con- 
sists of a number of breeders operating jointly for their 
mutual benefit. In animal production there are a num- 
ber of business transactions that can be accomplished 
to advantage by a number of men working together. 
Chief of these are purchasing pure-bred stock, especially 
males; disposing of surplus stock; purchasing supple- 
mentary food in large quantities, thus obtaining the ad- 
vantages of wholesale prices and reduced freight rates ; 
and the forming of cow-testing associations for the pur- 
pose of determining the profitable individual cows in the 
dairy herd. 

The strong advantage in this plan of procedure is that 
it promotes uniformity among the animals of a commu- 
nity. In time the locality becomes noted for the produc- 
tion of animals of this particular type, which serves to 
attract buyers in quest of such animals, thus increasing 
the market facilities of the community. 



CHAPTER XVIi 
FORMATION OF BREEDS 

When man first propagated animals to meet his needs 
is not known. Certain it is, however, that he enjoyed 
their conveniences, such as the labor, food and clothing 
they provided, from a very early period. Our oldest 
literature makes reference to the herds and flocks as an 
established factor in the agricultural industry of the 
times. Since their propagation seems to have been so 
thoroughly established, no doubt they had been domes- 
ticated for ages. Likewise, we have no definite knowl- 
edge as to which class of animals was first domesticated, 
although it has generally been assumed that the dog 
and the horse were among the first animals to be prop- 
agated in confinement. In the case of meat-producing 
animals there can be no doubt but that they were hunted 
and trapped by man for ages before any attempt was 
made to domesticate them or to propagate them in 
captivity. 

The place of first domestication has been assumed to 
be on the continent of Asia. This is the largest land 
area, with the greatest diversity of soil, climate and ex- 
posure. It is, therefore, richest in animal life, as well 
as the oldest in civilization. Here many of our most 
useful animals were domesticated so long ago that it is 
impossible to say when, how, or by whom the work was 
accomplished. 

Domestication a necessity. — Primitive man lived on 
the spontaneous product of nature. Could he have main- 
tained his existence upon these products, in all probability 
he would never have undertaken the trouble of domes- 
ticating the wild animals. Like the other animals about 
him, man lived under hard conditions. He spent most of 

185 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



his time in hunting something to eat and in avoiding 
being eaten himself. In this struggle primitive man 
found himself at no little disadvantage. He was not as 
strong as many of the animals he hunted, and hence no 
match for them in battle. He was neither as fleet as 
most of the game he hunted, nor could he trail by the 
scent like the wolf. 

Man was not long in learning that his chief advantage 
lay in his wits. He devised weapons and traps to aid 

him in the hunt. He 
was severe on the 
animals he hunted, 
and they not only 
diminished in num- 
bers, but gradually 
learned his methods 
and became exceed- 
ingly wary. Again 
man was forced to 
rely upon his wits. 
Because of its hunt- 
ing habits, the wolf, 
Long wool type. ^j^^ auccstor of the 

dog, was trained to aid man in the hunt and chase. 
With his weapons, traps and dogs, man was more severe 
upon the animals that he hunted, and they grew more 
and more scarce. It was inevitable that the time should 
come when he must take care of the animals about him 
or give up animal products, including food and clothing. 

The first act toward domestication was to hunt and 
destroy all animals that preyed upon those of value to 
man ; the next was to spare the finest males and all 
females with young; the next was to provide food for 
the animals at such seasons as they seemed unable to 
find it ; and, lastly, came the breeding in captivity and 
caring for them at all times. 

Evolution of farm animals. — Development was ex- 




FiG. 61 — COTSWOLD Ram. 



FORMATION OF BREEDS 187 

ceedingly slow at first, but when the necessity for im- 
provement became apparent advancement went rapidly 
forward. Thus the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries 
witnessed - remarkable strides in the advancement of 
agricultural interests generally. Now that men had ex- 
tended their political and religious influence to the ends 
of the earth they began to devote their attention to 
economic industries. Agriculture took foremost rank 
among these industries and during the eighteenth century 
underwent unprecedented advancement. Since animal 
production constituted a large part of the agricultural 
industry, it shared in this remarkable advancement. This 
century witnessed the introduction of the methods that 
resulted in the establishment of the modern breeds of 
farm animals. True, certain localities had long been 
known for the production of animals of a given type, par- 
ticularly in England, but these animals were not dif- 
ferentiated as breeds. This general advancement was 
favored by the spirit of the times, as everything seemed 
to be in readiness for it. 

Origin of breeds. — While animals have been domes- 
ticated and at the service of man for a very long time, the 
breeds of farm animals as we know them at present are 
of comparatively recent origin. Although systematic 
animal breeding is of recent origin, mention should be 
made of the fact that improvement has been under way 
from the time of domestication and even before. We 
are told that when the diminishing meat supply became 
inevitable, man secured his meat, not from the best, as 
before, but from the common animals, being careful to 
retain the best for breeding. Later, in choosing animals 
to breed in captivity, nothing was more natural than that 
the choicest should be selected, in order that the quality 
should not deteriorate. In this way improvement was 
introduced at the very beginning of domestication. 
This is significant, as it would seem that our ancestors 
very early learned the fundamental lesson of all breed- 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



ing — the better the parentage the better the offspring- 
Robert Bakewell. — The introduction of the methods 
that resulted in the establishment of the breeds was due 
in a very large measure to the ingenuity of Robert Bake- 




FiG. 52 — Robert Bakewell* 



well. He was born in 1726 at Dishley Grange near 
Loughborough, Leicestershire, England, where he died 
in 1795 in his 70th year of age. From his father Bakewell 
received excellent training in practical and experimental 
methods of husbandry. He made excursions into dif- 
ferent parts of England and to the Continent in order to 
inspect the different herds and to select those animals 
that were best adapted to his purpose. 

Bakewell was very original, and tested the worth of his 
ideas by frequent and varied experiments. His animals during 
their lifetime were often submitted to experiments to demon- 
strate the amount of food consumed to produce a given 
weight in product. After slaughtering they were carefully 

*From the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society Report, 1894. This report 
contains a good description of the life and work of Bakewell, pp. 1-31. 



FORMATION OF BREEDS 189 

examined to determine the quality of their flesh; also to 
determine the proportion of dressed meat to offal. This 
was not all, as we are told that skeletons and pickled 
joints of specimens of the best sheep and cattle formed a 
little museum, for the comparison of one generation with 
another, and ancestors with their descendants. 

Such careful observations, in connection with proper 
care, intelligent selection and suitable mating, worked 
rapid improvement. Thus many years did not pass be- 
fore Bakewell's animals were unrivaled in plumpness of 
form, in the small size of bone, and in their ability to 
acquire external fat, as well as in the small amount of 
food required to produce a given gain in body weight. 

Bakewell's principles. — While we have no account of 
the precise principles governing Bakewell's practice, yet 
Culley, Young and Marshall, who were repeatedly fa- 
vored with opportunities for making observations on 
Bakewell's practices, give us extended accounts of his 
methods. From these accounts it would seem that Bake- 
well's entire attention was centered on the following 
principles : 

The first principle of improvement was that, in general, 
animals produce others possessing qualities similar to 
their own. With this in mind Bakewell conceived the 
idea that he had only to select the most valuable animals 
such as promised greatest returns, and that he should 
then be able to produce a breed from which he could 
derive maximum advantage. 

The second principle alluded to the utility of form, as 
he conceived the form to be related to the function. 
Bakewell selected for small bone and beauty of form, as 
he believed that by so doing he could reduce the per- 
centage of offal and increase the relative proportion of 
meat in the region of the valuable cuts. 

The third principle referred to the quality of flesh. In 
the attempt to improve the quality he gave careful atten- 
tion to the texture of the muscular parts. He believed 



IQO BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

that the grain of the meat depended wholly on the breed, 
and not, as before considered, on the size of the animal. 

The fourth principle considered the propensity to fatten 
rapidly. Thus he favored animals with a natural tendency 
to fatten at an early age. 

The fifth principle alluded to inbreeding. Formerly the 
practice was to select females from native stock and cross 
them with males of alien blood. Bakewell imagined that 
better results would follow uniting superior animals of 
the same breed than by any mixture of foreign blood. 
Thus he shocked the mode^st people of his time by mating 
animals whose characters he wished to preserve without 
regard for relationship. 

The sixth principle of improvement referred to 
economic production. We are told that the prevailing 
idea, and the one which lay at the very root and source 
of his strength, was economy. This principle, no doubt, 
was uppermost in his mind when selecting for small bone 
and light offal as well as for early maturity and for the 
increased percentage of meat in the region of valuable cuts. 

Influence of Bakewell's methods. — Although his most 
noted success was achieved with sheep known as Dish- 
ley Leicesters, his work in breeding English Cart or 
Shire horses as well as Longhorn cattle has been of 
inestimable value to all branches of the breeding indus- 
try. Bakewell's animals became very distinguished. 
Breeders and people interested in live stock improvement 
visited him from various parts of England and Europe. 
They paid him large sums for the hire of his male 
animals, particularly rams, he being the first person to 
establish the custom of renting his animals. 

In 1760 rams were hired for a few shillings for the sea- 
son ; ten years later prices varied up to 25 guineas 
($131) ; and within a few years his annual income was 
said to be 3,000 guineas ($15,750) from the hire of rams 
alone. His celebrated ram, "Two Pounder," was hired 
one season for 800 guineas ($4,200), with the reservation 



FORMATION OF BREEDS I9I 

that Bakewell should breed one-third of the total number 
of ewes specified in the contract, which was figured as 
making the payment equivalent to a rental of 1,200 
guineas ($6,300). He rented stallions, bulls and boars 
on the same general plan. 

Such accomplishments served to attract other breeders 
to his methods, and the Colling Brothers, founders of the 
Shorthorn breed, the Tompkinses, founders of ;the Here- 
ford, and Watson, the founder of the Angus breed of 
cattle, as well as John Ell'man, the founder of the South- 
down breed of sheep and other early breeders, were close 
students of Bakewell's methods. The achievements of 
this one man furnished the stimulant which resulted in 
the development of our modern breeds of farm animals. 

Forming of new breeds. — While new breeds have been 
formed in many ways and under various conditions, for 
convenience of study, the methods employed may be 
grouped into four general classes : 

First. Breeds were founded by introducing alien males, 
which were mated with native females. ' Previous to 
Bakewell's time this was the common method, and while 
extensively employed since, as a rule it has been followed 
by close breeding to establish the type. This method is 
well illustrated in the formation of the Thoroughbred 
or English running horse. 

Second. Breeds were formed by the careful selection of 
native stock, by judicious mating, and by improved 
methods of care and management. Animals possessing 
the desirable qualities were often closely bred to establish 
the type. The formation of the Shorthorn breed illus- 
trates this method. 

Third. Breeds were formed by the crossing of two or more 
distinct breeds after which close breeding was often em- 
ployed to preserve the desirable qualities. This method 
is illustrated in the formation of the Oxford breed of 
sheep. 

Fourth. Breeds were formed by the uniting of two and 



192 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



sometimes more existing breeds. The Holstein-Friesiaii 
breed of dairy cattle illustrates this method. 

Origin of the Thoroughbred. — Stallions were imported 
from Arabia, Barhary, Persia and other Oriental coun- 
tries and mated with native English mares. In 16 16 
Markham's Arabian was imported, Byerly Turk in 1689, 
Darley Arabian in 1706, and Godolphin Barb in 1728. 
These stallions, especially the three latter, may be con- 
sidered the Thoroughbred foundation. From them 
descended Herod (King Herod), Eclipse, Flying Child- 
ers and Matchem, the greatest racing prize winners as 
well as the most renowned sires of the breed. Herod 
sired 497 prize winners, Eclipse 334 and Matchem 354, 
which are estimated to have won for their owners more 
than £500,000, or over $2,500,000. 

Origin of the Shorthorn. — This breed originated in 
the counties of York, Durham and Northumberland in 
northeastern England. Hubback, a native bull born in 
1777, is regarded as the founder of the breed. His off- 
spring were better feeders, matured earlier, dressed out 
with less offal and had more constitutional vigor than 
the older sorts. These characters were inherited by a 
grandson, Foljambe, who became a great breeder. A 
son, Bolingbroke, and a daughter, Phoenix, mated to- 
gether, produced the bull Favorite, one of the most 
famous of the breed. Favorite, mated with his dam, pn - 
duced Young Phoenix, which, in turn, he was bred to, 

Pedigree of the Shorthorn Bull, Comet (155) 

r Foljambe f263) 
(Young Strawberry 
I Foljambe (263) 
I, Lady Maynard 
( Bolingbroke (86) 



Bolingbroke (86) 



Comet (155) 



Favourite (252) 



Young Phoenix 



Phoenix 



r Favourite (252) 



Phoenix 



Phoenix 
Foljambe (86) 
Lady Maynard 



FORMATION OF BREEDS I93 

resulting in the bull Comet, a very famous animal, who 
sold for £1,000 ($5,000), which was the highest price 
paid up to that time. 

Origin of the Oxford. — This breed of sheep was de- 
veloped in Oxford County, England. It is of compar- 
atively recent origin. About 1830 the shepherds of the 



ff-^ 



'•'; l>> 



Fig. 63 — A Prize-Winnmng Flock of Oxford Sheep 

County of Oxford conceived the idea of developing a 
new breed of sheep combining the desirable qualities 
of the long-wooled breeds and of the Down breeds. They 
began by miating compact Cotswold rams with Hamp- 
shire ewes. Later Southdown blood was introduced to 
some extent, although the Hampshire was the chief 
source of Down blood in the Oxford Down foundation. 
As would be expected from its Cotswold ancestry, the 
Oxford has a long and coarse fleece, although from the 
Hampshire line it inherits desirable mutton qualities. 

Origin of the Holstein-Friesian. — This breed name is 
of American origin, there being no breed of the name in 
Europe, the native home of the breed. The Friesian 
cattle originated in the province of Friesland, Holland, 
where they became so popular that many were exported 
to Germany, Denmark, Belgium and the United States. 
The Holstein cattle originated in the province of Hoi- 



194 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

stein, Germany, where they also became very noted and 
were exported to many countries, including the United 
States. Thus in Europe the Friesians and Holsteins are 
separate and distinct breeds. The two breeds, however, 
have essentially the same origin and are similar in all 
important characteristics. In order to promote the wel- 
fare of the two breeds, the breeders and importers in 
this country finally came together and united their in- 
terests, agreeing to call the breed Holstcin-Friesian. 

Origin of the Standardbred horse. — The formation of 
this breed is of interest in the consideration of the origin 
of breeds, as we can trace present-day Standardbred horses 
back through the Thoroughbred on the one hand and the 
Hackney and Norfolk trotter on the other hand, to the 
time of Darley Arabian. This relationship is illustrated 
in the chart on opposite page showing the descent of the 
Standardbred horse from Darley Arabian through the 
Thoroughbred line on the left and through the Hackney 
and Norfolk trotter line on the right ; also the relationship 
of the II stallions with 150 or more performers, the figures 
not in parenthesis following the names indicating the 
number of performers. 



Q S p4 



Q 
< 

< 



o g 


11 




^^ 


2 






x: 


(1) 


o<- 


-O- 










O s 


a 


m 


oO 


fe 




s; 






1— t 






^ 






o 







m 



< 

U 









1/3 W <5 <; 



C cd 



IS 



CHAPTER XVIII 
IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS 

While breed improvement was due very largely to 
judicious selection, suitable mating and better care on 
the part of breeders generally, it is of interest to note 
the factors that gave encouragement to such methods. 
In the development of the breeds many factors exerted 
a favorable influence, chief of w^hich w^ere the establish- 
ment of books of record, of breeders' associations, and 
of live stock shows. Since the books of record gave in- 
formation concerning the ancestors of a given animal 
capable of meeting the requirements, it enabled the 
breeder to select his animals with intelligence, as well as 
to keep the blood lines pure. Before the introduction of 
such records it was not possible to learn the merit of a 
given animal's ancestors, and hence impossible to es- 
timate, even approximately, what the offspring would 
be like. 

Origin of pedigrees. — It was to promote the develop- 
ment and to preserve the purity of the Thoroughbred or 
English race horse that books of record were established. 
So far as is known there were no records of breeding or 
performance previous to the eighteenth century. True, 
through advertisements, sales' papers, catalogs, and the 
like, many pedigrees had gained currency, but they were all 
shaped on fashionable lines, and many, if not most of 
them, were fictitious. In 1709 a racing calendar of note 
was published. Others followed, perhaps the most no- 
table being the Racing Register, published by Bailey 
Brothers. The records were intended largel)^ for the 
convenience of men who wagered money, and who cared 
little for blood lines, hence mistakes were of frequent 
occurrence. Such was the condition of English pedi- 



IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS 197 

grees when, toward the close of the eighteenth century, 
Weatherby and Pick started their stud books. 

In 1786, Pick published "A Careful Collection of All 
the Pedigrees Possible to Obtain," and in 1791 
Weatherby published an "Introduction to a General Stud 
Book." These publications were the forerunners of 
Pick's Turf Register and of Weatherby's General Stud 
Book. The first volume of both the Register and the 
Stud Book was published in 1803. Four volumes of 
Pick's Turf Register appeared and then the publication 
was discontinued, while the General Stud Book continued 
as the official organ of the Thoroughbred in England. 
This represents the first successful attempt to record 
genealogy of farm animals. 

The second book of record to make its appearance was 
the Shorthorn Herd Book. Acting upon his own in- 
itiative, Coates collected the pedigrees of Shorthorns of 
note, and after much difficulty in obtaining the necessary 
financial assistance, published the first volume of the 
herd book in 1822, although it was not until 1876 that the 
British breeders, organized as the Shorthorn Society of 
Great Britain, took charge of the preparation and pub- 
lication of the pedigree records. Following the lead of 
the Thoroughbred and Shorthorn breeders, the advo- 
cates of each breed of note established and maintained a 
book of record. The more popular breeders maintain 
a separate book of record in each country where they are 
extensively bred. For list see appendix. 

Eligibility to registration. — At present in America, 
practically all books of record limit registration to the 
offspring of registered parents, although during the 
formative period of the breeds the standard was less 
rigid. Thus some breeds admitted animals with five 
or seven top crosses, and others, providing the animals 
contained a certain per cent of blood already in the book 
of record. Such is the case even today in many foreign 
countries. In addition to the purity of blood, some breed 



198 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



associations require certain breed characteristics. Thus 
Holstein-Friesian cattle, to be eligible to registration, 
must be black and white, and a red and white animal, 
although of pure breeding, is not eligible. To provide 
the finances necessary to publish the book, there is 
usually a pro rata charge for each animal recorded. 




^^^-a^:^ ««. ^-^ 



Fig. 64 — Hereford Heifer "Scottish Lassie'' 



Advanced register. — The ordinary pedigree is merely 
a guarantee against mixed blood lines and gives us evi- 
dence that the individual belongs to a specific breed. It 
gives us no information as to whether or not a particular 
individual is a good one. The animal may be the best 
or the poorest of the breed, but there is nothing in his 
pedigree whereby we may judge of his merit. 

The advanced register gives us the desired information, 
as the performance of the animal is recorded therein. It 
is a kind of second registration, based upon performance, 
and furnishes us a guarantee of quality. Among horses 
it is based upon their track records (p. 126), and among 



IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS I99 

dairy cattle upon the amount of milk and butter fat pro- 
duced within a given length of time according to an 
official recognized test (p. 127). 

Breed associations. — Upon their ow^n initiative 
Weatherby and Coates compiled and published the first 
volumes of the General Stud Book and of the Shorthorn 
Herd Book. The business grew so rapidly, however, and 
there was so much detail connected with the registration, 
such as tabulation of pedigrees, publication of the books 
of record, and the like, as well as with financing the 
undertaking, and later with the management of the ad- 
vanced register work, that it became necessary to pro- 
vide some method whereby the work could be done sys- 
tematically. This led to the organization of associations, 
the membership of which consisted largely of breeders 
interested in the development of a particular breed. 

Thus the advocates of each breed formed a breeders' 
association to conduct the business connected with the 
management of the breed. Upon the payment of a mem- 
bership fee any breeder may become a member of the 
association of the breed he handles. In many of the 
associations the charges for registration of animals 
owned by members are less than for those owned by non- 
members. These associations are considered the official 
organs of the breeds and have been very potent factors 
in the general improvement and advancement of the 
several breeds of farm animals. 

Live stock shows. — One of the most important factors 
in the early development and improvement of the breeds 
of farm animals was the live stock show. This is es- 
pecially true of Britain, where animal fairs have been 
held for centuries. Following the lead of England, live 
stock shows have been encouraged and given financial 
assistance by practically all countries where animal pro- 
duction constitutes a large part of the agricultural in- 
dustry. 

The value of live stock expositions for the purpose of 



200 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



stimulating improvement is emphasized by the interest 
shown in our town, county, state, national and interna- 
tional expositions. Were they not powerful factors in 
the improvement and advancement of the breeds of farm 
animals, they would not be so universally recognized or 
so extensively patronized by either the exhibitors or 
breeders. 

The fact that a successful show yard career adds 
greatly to an animal's commercial value as an individual, 




Fig. 65 — Beef Cattle Parade on Show Grounds 



as well as to the economic value of the get afterwards, 
stimulates much interest among the exhibitors, and each 
tries to outdo the other. This competition results in 
maximum development of the individuals and brings out 
the best animals of the various breeds. Further, such 
expositions have been very useful in familiarizing the 
people at large with breed characteristics and in provid- 
ing an opportunity to compare one breed with another. 
British methods.— Following the formation and de- 
velopment of the Thoroughbred horse, Britain enjoyed 
an era of live stock improvement which resulted in the 
organization of more than a score of separate and distinct 
breeds of farm animals, including horses, cattle, sheep 
and swine. Since we import from Britain large numbers 



IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS 201 

of four breeds of horses, six breeds of cattle, nine breeds 
of sheep and four breeds of swine, the methods of breed 
improvement, on the little group of islands, the total area 
of which is much less than that of the State of California, 
are of more than passing interest. Of the 88 breeds listed 
in the tabulation of breeds of farm animals in the ap- 
pendix, 44 claim Britain as their native home. 

The natural conditions such as the uneven topography, 
the varied climate and the fertile soil, together with the 
stock-loving habits of the people, favored the propaga- 
tion and improvement of numerous types and breeds of 
farm animals. Advancement was also promoted by the 
system of husbandry and by the relationship between 
tenant and landlord, the land being rented under such 
terms as to favor the breeding and improvement of farm 
animals. 

It was recognized that the animals of certain counties 
were distinct from those of other counties in the rate 
and manner of growth as well as in fattening qualities. 
Each of these sections took pride in developing its 
animals, and there was often keen rivalry among the 
counties or sections. There was a total absence of in- 
discriminate crossing of animals from different counties. 
This resulted in the development of many distinct breeds 
each with its distinctive characteristics. 

As it was in Britain that live stock shows were inau- 
gurated, it was there that they proved their worth in 
stimulating interest in breeding. From their inception, 
these shows have been very potent factors in live stock 
improvement. They were systematized by the Royal 
Agricultural Society of England, established in 1839, since 
which time they have attracted world-wide attention, 
until at present all animal-producing nations hold sim- 
ilar shows. 

It is only fair to state, however, that the most signifi- 
cant factor in stimulating improvement is the demand 
created for the stock by America and other leading 



202 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

animal-producing nations, largely drawing on Britain for 
improved blood. As the animals are intended for breed- 
ing purposes and to introduce new blood into other coun- 
tries, there seems to be no limit to the price foreign buy- 
ers are willing to pay, especially if the animal has a 
successful show yard career, or in the case of racing 
horses a successful turf career back of him. 

French methods. — Since the Percheron draft horse is 
so very popular, the methods employed in the improve- 
ment of the breed are of interest. In order to provide 
horses for war purposes the early monarchs interested 
themselves in horse breeding. Since the establishment 
of the "Administration des Haras" during the reign of 
Louis XIV, the French government has made systematic 
efforts to promote the horse-breeding industry. Not- 
withstanding the political disturbance and war, the gov- 
ernment purchased stallions in large numbers, import- 
ing many from foreign countries, notably Arabia. 

In 1833, by royal decree, the French Jockey Club was 
organized and a stud book established. This did much 
to further the industry. In 1870 the management of the 
government horses was given over to the Department of 
Agriculture and Commerce. The general control was 
placed in charge of a director, who was assisted by sub- 
directors, inspector, superintendents and veterinarians, 
all of whom must be graduated from the horse depart- 
ment at Le Pin. This is significant, as it contributes to 
the uniformity of the horses throughout France, and is 
in striking contrast to American methods as set forth by 
the various state stallion laws, where instead of a few 
inspectors with a common ideal, there are many inspec- 
tors with equally as many ideals. 

There are three classes of government stallions in 
France : First, those owned by the government ; second, 
those owned privately, but subsidized by the govern- 
ment — when thus subsidized the owners receive an an- 
nual allowance from the Minister of Agriculture; third. 



IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS 



203 



stallions owned privately, and, having been passed upon 
by the officials and found w^orthy, are approved or au- 
thorized for public service. All other stallions are pre- 
vented by a law passed in 1885 from standing for public 
service. 

With the exception of some aid to the improvement of 
fine-wooled sheep, the government has interested itself 
in horse breeding only and similar aid has not been ex- 
tended to other classes of farm animals, with the result 
that other classes of French animals are little known 
outside of France. 

Further improvement needed. — If the propagation of 
farm animals is to retain its present position in the agri- 
cultural industry, the animals must be improved so as 
to yield larger returns for the expenses involved. The in- 
creasing price of stock foods makes this imperative, notwith- 
standing the remarkable advancement already attained as in- 
dicated in the discussion of results accomplished (p. 171). 
Even in the case of such a phenomenal animal as the pig, 
weighing 300 pounds at six to eight months of age, each 
pound of gain will require approximately four pounds of 
grain or its equivalent, which, with grain at $20 a ton 
will make a feed cost 
alone of four cents a 
pound, to say nothing of 
the shelter or lots, the 
insurance or risk from 
death, the labor and the 
cost of the parents or 
their inaintenance. 

The need of further 
improvement is better il- 
lustrated in the case of Fig. 66— Cheshire Hog of Excellent Tyi'e 

the beef animal that 

weighs say 1,400 pounds at 18 months, phenomenal individ- 
ual that he is. In order to force a steer to make such a gain 
it would be necessary to feed approximately six pounds of 




204 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

grain or its equivalent, and at least one-half as much hay for 
each pound of gain. With grain at $20 and hay at $10 a ton 
this would make a food cost alone of 7^ cents a pound, 
to say nothing of the other expenses incidental to the 
business of raising and fattening animals for beef. This 
calculation is based upon the most phenomenal animals 
of the class to which they belong, yet the food cost is 
very high, and only a very small percentage of the nutri- 
tion or energy of the food is recovered in the product. 

Need of extending improvement. — While further im- 
provement will be welcome, the greatest need at the 
present time is to extend such attributes as have already 
been attained. Some horses are fast enough, some pos- 
sess sufficient quality, some stylish enough, some suf- 
ficiently smooth gaited, and some large enough ; but few, 
possibly none, possess these attributes in the proper pro- 
portion so as to secure maximum efficiency. Surely draft 
horses are too slow and lack the endurance and quality 
characteristic of light horses. 

While the phenomenal individuals mentioned above 
produce meat fairly economical, in the main, it is pro- 
duced only at enormous expense of feed, requiring, 
roughly speaking, six pounds of grain or its equivalent 
for each pound of gain in the case of swine ; 8 to 10 pounds 
of grain or its equivalent in the case of sheep; 12 to 15 
pounds of grain or its equivalent in the case of cattle. 
Likewise the hen that lays 275 to 300 eggs in a year is 
doing much more than we have a right to reasonably 
expect her to do, but the hen on the average farm lays 
less than four dozen eggs in a year. If common animals 
could be improved to even approximate the efficient ones 
in economic production it would prove a most significant 
factor in advancing agricultural as well as human inter- 
ests generally, and would give the propagation of animals 
a new lease which they could hold for some time to come. 

A good example of the need of extending improvement 
to the common animals is observed in the case of dairy 



IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS 



205 



cattle. There is greater variation in the production of 
dairy cows than that of any other class of farm animals. 
To illustrate this variation the following tabulation is 
arranged comparing the average annual production for 
both milk and butter of all cows in the United States by 
decades with the monthly and yearly production of the 
leading high-producing Holstein-Friesian cows. This 
is not a comparison of the poorest and the best, but of 
the average for all cows in the United States and the best. 

Average Yearly Production Per Cow in the United 

States 



Year 


Milk, 


Butter, 


Year 


Milk, 


Butter, 




pounds 


pounds 




pounds 


pounds 


1850 


1,436 


61 


1890 


2,709 


115 


1860 


1,505 


64 


1900 


3,646 


155 


1870 


1,772 


75 


1910 


3,520 


150 


1880 


2,004 


85 









Production for One Month 



Name of cow 


Milk, 
pounds 


Butter fat, 
pounds 


80% butter, 
pounds 


K. P. Pontiac Lass 

Valdessa Scott 2d 

Pontiac Lady Korndyke 

Johanna De Kol Van Beers 


2,316 
2.934 
2,497 
2,764 


137 
131 
125 
121 


171 
164 
157 
151 



Production for One Year* 



Banostine Belle De Kol 

Pontiac Clothilde De Kol 2d. 
High-Lawn Hartog De Kol... 
Colantha 4th's Johanna 



27,404 
25,318 
25,592 
27,432 




*May Rilma, a G'lernsey cow, exceeded these records in the production of 
butter fat, producing 1,073.4 pounds of butter fat from 19,673 pounds of niir< 
in 365 days, now the world's record for butter fat. 



20b BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

Thus the leading cows produce approximately as much 
milk and butter in one month as the average cow in the 
United States produces in one year. Further, the lead- 
ing cows produce almost lo times as much in a year as 
that produced by the average cow. There seems no 
reason to doubt that the average cow could be advanced 
to produce approximately one-third that of the lead- 
ing cows, providing proper methods were employed in 
feeding, breeding, care and management. In this case 
one-half of the present number of cows would give us 
as much milk and butter as we now receive. This would 
result in a very great saving of food, labor and shelter 
and advance the dairy industry to one of the most profit- 
able branches of a2:riculture. 



CHAPTER XIX 
BUILDING UP A HERD 

The inevitability of the dairy cow warrants a discus- 
sion on building up the herd. There is great variation 
in the productiveness of dairy cows, some producing lo 
times that of others. Notwithstanding this variability 
she responds to judicious care and breeding more per- 
fectly than does any other class of farm animals. This 
means, of course, that the dairy cow is susceptible to 
much improvement. 

It is safe to say that not over one-fourth of the dairy 
cows in the United States are capable of producing 7,500 
pounds of milk and 300 pounds of butter fat in one year, 
even if reasonably well fed. The breeder should not be 
satisfied until the poorest cows in his herd are capable 
of producing the above amount. If all the dairy cows 
in the United States were developed to this point, the 
average production for each cow would be approximately 
double what it is at the present time. To put it the other 
way around, and what is more desirable from the breed- 
er's point of view, one-half of the present number of cows 
would be capable of producing approximately the same 
amount of milk and butter fat than we now obtain. Such 
advancement is by no means impossible. In fact, it is 
within reach of practically all breeders who are willing 
to practice judicious methods of management, feeding 
and breeding. 

The inevitability of the dairy cow. — If the past and 
present movements of farm animals may be accepted as 
a criterion as to future movements, the dairy cow is soon 
to become our principal source of animal food. There are 
at least two very significant reasons for this assumption. 
In the first place, no other farm animal can produce food 

207 



.208 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

as cheaply as the dairy cow. As the human population 
increases this is to become more apparent, as it will be 
necessary to produce animal food more economically in 
order to avoid a scarcity of human foodstuffs. 

In the second place, at the present time, the products 
of the dairy cow are practically indispensable as an article 
of human diet, especially for infants. The principal 
product, milk, is of such a nature that it cannot be trans- 
ported a great distance, thus necessitating the keeping of 
large numbers of dairy cows near the centers of dense 
population. The importance of fresh, clean, sw.eet milk 
as an article of human diet is frequently impressed upon 
the physicians and health officers in the larger cities dur- 
ing the hot days of midsummer, as at such times there 
is often a high infant mortality largely due to the lack of 
fresh, sweet milk, which is often exceedingly difficult to 
obtain, especially if traffic is partially interrupted for a 
few days. 

The use of pure-bred animals. — It is universally ac- 
cepted, all things considered, that purely bred animals 
excel grades. For this reason well-bred animals com- 
mand a fancy price which often prohibits their use ; 
nevertheless they have a number of very strong advan- 
tages over grades, chief of which are their capability 
of higher production, their stimulating effect upon the 
breeder, thus favoring general improvement, and the in- 
creased value of their offspring- These advantages are 
often sufficient to offset the high price. 

It has been shown conclusively that there is a close 
relationship between the number of pure-bred animals in 
a community and the general excellence of all farm 
animals. Of the 20 counties in New York state having 
the largest number of dairy cattle those containing the 
largest number of pure breds include the counties in 
which the average yield was highest and the counties 
which made the largest increase in yield during the past 
decade, 



BUILDING UP A HERD 209 

The use of grade animals. — While the ideal condition 
would be to have only high-producing, purely bred 
animals, at the present time this is impossible because of 
the small number of such animals available. A very 
small percentage of the cattle are pure bred, and of this 
number many are inferior or diseased, which renders 
them unfit for foundation animals on which to build a 
future herd. In general, therefore, the breeder must use 
the best-producing animals available without respect to 
purity of blood for foundation stock. 

By the grading-up process, that is, by continually se- 
lecting and breeding the cows that are the best producers 
to a purely bred bull of proven worth, it is entirely pos- 
sible and by no means difficult to establish a herd of grade 
cows that will equal in the production of milk any herd 
of pure-bred animals. The enterprising and progressive 
breeder, however, will hardly be content with grades 
only. In the beginning his bull will be purely bred, and 
presently he will want a pure-bred cow to match, then 
one or two more. Thus he will be steadily and properly 
working toward a pure-bred herd and gaining in knowl- 
edge and experience at the same time. This will prove 
a much more economical as well as more satisfactory 
plan, especially with the beginner or those unaccustomed 
to purely bred cattle, than to purchase a pure-bred herd 
in the beginning, as the risk is too great for those lacking 
in practical experience. 

Foundation animals. — In building up the herd the most 
important as well as the most difficult animal to select 
is a suitable bull to head the herd. His breeding, his 
ability to get uniformly high-producing offspring and his 
individuality should be carefully considered. It goes 
without saying that he should be a good individual of the 
breed to which he belongs, and that he should be of 
proven worth as well as purely bred. 

The most important factor in selecting the foundation 
cows is a record of performance of each animal under 



210 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

consideration. In building up a herd this is indis- 
pensable. Without it, advancement is uncertain and per- 
manent improvement is not possible. Of course, only 
uniformly high-producing cows should be secured. 

If the herd to be improved is already organized, then 
the first problem is to separate the high-producing from 
the low-producing cows. At the present time a very 
large percentage of the dairy cows do not yield sufficient 
product to pay for the food they consume, when figured at 
prices obtainable on the farm, to say nothing of the labor 
and other expenses. Could all such inferior cattle be 
eliminated, this alone would very materially advance the 
dairy industry. 

After the foundation animals have been decided upon 
and the herd assembled, it is important that the animals 
be given the best of care. This is essential to improve- 
ment, as highest efficiency depends on maximum develop- 
ment, which, in turn, depends on judicious management. 

The first generation. — If the sire has been well chosen, 
the calves of the first generation are likely to be fairly 
uniform, even though their dams be of mixed breeding. 
If convenient, all of the heifer calves should be retained. 
A great advantage in building up a herd by the grading- 
up process is the opportunity afforded to raise a large 
number of individuals up to the time they begin to pro- 
duce. This provides large numbers from which to select, 
which results in more rapid improvement than though 
the numbers were limited. It often happens, however, 
owing to lack of facilities for rearing calves, that some 
selection must be made at birth. In this case retain the 
heifers from the high-producing dams, disposing of those 
from the low-producing cows. 

Breeding the young heifers. — There are many perplex- 
ing questions arising in the second generation of the 
grading-up process. In the first place, the young heifers 
should be bred and developed much as suggested in the 
discussion developing the heifer (p. 311). 



BUILDING UP A HERD 211 

If the original sire was a young- one at the time of his 
purchase, there will be a considerable number of his half- 
blood offspring ready to breed while he is still in the 
height of his power. As there has been much said against 
the practice of inbreeding, most breeders hesitate to breed a 
bull to his own offspring. But if inbreeding is ever likely 
to be followed by useful results it will be under just such 
conditions, and in proportion as both the bull and the 
half-blood heifers show strong individual vital powers 
the practice is recommended. In the majority of cases the 
very best bull to breed to a lot of high-quality, uniform, 
half-blood heifers is their own sire, especially if it is de- 
sired to secure greater uniformity and greater average pro- 
duction in their offspring. 

On the other hand, suppose the breeder wishes to 
change bulls and procures an animal equal in productive 
capacity but of slightly different type from the original 
sire. In all probability their second generation calves, 
even though they are three-fourths pure blood, will not 
be nearly so uniform a crop as the first generation or half- 
blood calves. Further, such offspring frequently show 
little, if any increase, in average production, although a 
few individuals may show marked improvement. This 
will prove the skill and patience of the breeder. 

Continued judicious selection the means of improve- 
ment. — The heifers that show marked improvement are 
the ones to be relied on to carry the herd forward in im- 
provement. It is the continued elimination of the low- 
producing and the judicious selection of the high-produc- 
ing that advances the general average of the herd. As 
generations come and go, the characteristics of the pure- 
bred sire will become more fixed and the herd more uni- 
form in type and capacity. From the production stand- 
point, the herd will become practically equal to purely 
bred animals, although the male offspring should not be used 
for breeding, as they would tend to stimulate reversion 
toward the low-producing and common-bred ancestors. 



212 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



The Glista family-* — This family takes its name from 
Glista 7857, the ancestress of the Holstein-Friesian herd 
at Cornell University, Since Glista herself was rather 
inferior as a producer, the development of this family 
gives a good illustration of the building up of a herd 
from a common individual. As would be expected from 





Glista 



Glista 2nd 





Gl. Netherland 



Gl. De Kol 





Gl. Iota 



Gl. Ernestine 



Fig. 67 — "Glista Ernestine," 24.410 pounds butter fat 
in seven days and her ancestors. 



*"The Cornell Dairy Herd," H. H. Wing; "The Cornell Countryman," Nov. 
1913, pp. 44-51. 



BUILDING UP A HERD 213 

SO common a foundation cow, not all descendants have 
shown uniformly good qualities. The number of inferior 
animals is not larger than would usually appear in any 
course of breeding. By judicious selection these have 
been eliminated from the herd. It is interesting to trace 
the advancement of the descendants of this inferior cow up 
to Glista Cora, with a record of 24.129 pounds of butter 
fat in seven days as a senior three-year-old, to Glista 
Ernestine, with a record of 24.410 pounds of butter fat as 
a junior four-year-old, and to Glista Eglantine, with an 
aged record of 25.912 pounds of butter fat in one week. 
Glista Omicron, Glista Eglantine's dam, has a record of 
25.282 of butter fat (Figs. 67 and 68). 

In the following tabulation the relationship of all the indi- 
viduals in the family is shown in the line of female descent, 
together with the length of time they remained in the herd 
and their average yield in pounds of fat per year during 
the time they were in the herd. A study of the table re- 
veals some of the uncertainties as well as some of the 
difficulties with which the animal breeder must work. 
Glista 2d, the poorest cow in the first generation of off- 
spring, is in direct line of ascent to Glista Ernestine and 
Glista Eglantine, now considered to be the best cows in 
the herd, all things considered. Glista Delta, the best 
cow in the second generation, left no female descendants, 
and her line became extinct. The table also illustrates 
very clearly the wide variation in relative fertility and 
longevity, some of the cows giving birth to but one calf 
and then failing to breed again, while others remain 
fertile until late in life, producing 10 calves and remain- 
ing productive for 10 years. 

Advancement requires time. — While the tabulation 
shows rapid improvement in the first two generations of 
offspring, yet in point of time progress was slow, as is 
like'ly to be the case in any breeding operations involving 
the larger animals. Glista 3d produced three bull calves 
in succession and no heifers, while Glista 4th produced 



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Uh 




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C5 


u 


i-i-i 


r/j 


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BUILDING UP A HERD 



215 



four bull calves before her first heifer was born. This 
retarded progress at first, although after a time the herd 
increased rapidly in numbers and improved in general 

Advancement in Glista Family 





Average 
number 
of cows 
in herd 


Milk 


Fat 


Period 


Average 
amount 

produced 
in one 

year, lbs. 


Average 
gain, lbs. 


Average 
amount 

produced 
in one 

year, lbs. 


Averacre 
gain, lbs 


1891-1895 

1896-1900 


1.5 

2.2 

6.0 

18.6 

18.0 


6,258 
8,868 
9,065 
8,261 
9,195 


2,610 
197 

-804* 
130 


201 
285 
312 
291 

324 


84 


1901-1905 


27 


1906-1910 


-21* 


1911-1913 


12 







♦Decrease. 





Glista 



Glista 4th 




Gl. beta 




Gl. Cora 



Fig. 6S — "Glista Cora," 24.129 pounds butter fat 
in seven days, and her ancestors 



2l6 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

productive capacity. This is shown in the preceding 
tabulation which gives the average number of cows in 
the herd, the average amount of milk produced by each 
animal in a year, the average gain in milk as well as the 
average amount of butter fat produced by each animal 
in a year and the average gain in butter fat, in periods 
of five years each beginning in 189 1 and continuing to the 
close of 1913. 




Fig. 69 — High-Producing Holstein-Friesian Cows 
Daughters of Prince Ybma Spofford 6th 

The tabulation illustrates the major drawback in breed- 
ing pure-bred animals. Practically all of the heifer calves 
were retained in 1906-10, there being little or no selec- 
tion practiced. This resulted in a rapid increase in the 
number of cows in the herd and a corresponding decrease 
in production. The building up of a herd, whether of 
grades or purely bred animals, depends upon judicious 
selection. 

Influence of the sires. — In the building up of a herd the 
influence of the sires is of great importance. The ad- 
vancement in the Glista family has probably come largely 
through the sires, although in the tables showing female 
descent there is no indication of this. It is difficult to 



BUILDING UP A HERD 



±iy 



indicate the exact influence of each sire other than by 
giving a list of his daughters, together with the produc- 
tion of each, which is shown in the fohowing tabulation : 



Fat, 
Sired by Netherland Remus pounds 

Glista 2d 188 

Glista 3d 252 

Glista 4th 274 

Average 238 

Gired by Sir Beets De Kol 

Glista Beta 309 

Glista De Kol 303 

Glista Alpha 294 

Average 302 

Gired by Earl Korndyke De 

Kol 

Glista Delta 348 

Glista Theta 302 

Glista Eta 327 

Glista Epsilon 312 

Glista Lambda 292 

Glista Gamma 336 

Glista Iota 381 

Glista Nu 317 

Glista Mu 285 

Average 323 

Sired by Dutch Hengerveld 

Korndyke 

Glista Rho 301 

Glista Xi 180 

Glista Sigma 341 

Glista Omicron 359 

Glista Tau 255 

Glista Pi 198 

Glista Phi 231 

Glista Upsilon 163 



Average . 



254 



Fat 
Sired by Small Hopes pounds 
Korndyke De Kol 

Glista Carlotta 299 

Glista Psi 345 

Glista Candida 259 

Glista Coriander 233 

Glista Corinne 253 

GH a Chi 281 

Glista Eloise 283 

Glista Eleanor 286 

Glista Omega 309 

Glista Francesca 322 

Glista Eva 270 



Average . 



285 



Sired by A. & G. Netherland 
Piebe De Kol 

Glista Alpha 2d 204 

Glista Echo 338 

Glista Ebony 304 



Average . 



282 



7 Sired by Prince Ybma 
Spofford 6th 

Glista Cora 413 

Glista Coreva 223 

Glista Dora 239 

Glista Duchess 220 

Glista Draba 298 

Glista Ernestine 377 

Glista Eglantine 264 

Glista Flora 207 

Glista Flora 310 



Average . 



.283 



Since the cows are of the same strain in the female line, 
the average variation in productiveness of the offspring 
is due largely to the sires. Of the seven bulls, Earl Korn- 
dyke De Kol was the individual most impressive and of 
greatest use in the herd, whereas Dutch Hengerveld 
Korndyke was the least successful. Special attention is 
directed to these two sires. Had the herd missed the 
beneficial effect of the former, the latter, in all probabil- 
ity, would have sent it to oblivion, as many a bull thus 
has sent many a dairy herd. On the other hand, could 
the herd have enjoyed the beneficial effect of a second 
sire relatively as efficient as Earl Korndyke De Kol, the 



2l8 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

herd would have taken rank among the foremost in the 
country. 

Prince Ybma Spofford 6th gives promise of excelling 
Earl Korndyke De Kol, as three of his daughters — Eglan- 
tine, Ernestine and Cora — have produced more than 24 
pounds of butter fat in seven consecutive days and rank 
high among the cows of the breed (Fig. 69). 



CHAPTER XX 
COMMUNITY BREEDING 

This system has been extensively introduced into a 
number of foreign countries, and into some of the states 
of the Union with most excellent results. A number of 
breeders in a community possessing the same type or 
breed of animals band together and form a co-operating 
breeding society. This has for its object the production 
and improvement of the animals of the community and 
often of some specific breed, as well as the establishment 
of cordial relations generally between the members of 
the society, who agree to practice such methods as will 
insure the most successful and economic results. It is 
the duty of each member to improve his animals by mat- 
ing exclusively with pure-bred sires of the breed repre- 
sented by his society, to care for his animals in the most 
approved manner, to co-operate with his fellow-members 
in the use of approved sires and in buying and selling 
stock, as well as in promoting the general welfare of the 
animal interests of the community. 

Business of breeding. — The breeding of farm animals 
is a complicated and many-sided business. The breeder 
must not only be a student, familiar with the underlying- 
principles of breeding, but he must be a live stock judge 
in order to select animals judiciously ; he must be a feeder 
and trainer in order to develop maximum possibilities, 
as well as a business man in the sense of being capable 
of properly advertising his product in order that he may 
sell and buy to advantage. 

The business of producing farm animals for breeding 
purposes is too complex for one man to accomplish with 
greatest efficiency. It calls for the harmonious effort of 
many minds. In the proposed society some men, by na- 

219 



220 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

ture, may be scientific breeders, some natural judges, some 
expert feeders, some natural trainers, and others gifted 
with business and executive ability, the united effort of 
which can accomplish vastly more in the way of animal 
improvement than the wisest man working single handed. 
True, the lone man, if a genius at business, may make 
more money than the individuals in the society, but it 
will be due to his executive ability and not to the quality 
of his animals. It would be vastly better for the commu- 
nity as well as to his own advantage for such a person to 
join the society, as in this particular case he would be 
able to do the entire community's business more effi- 
ciently, because he would have a better grade of animals 
to sell. 

Expense of equipment reduced. — The improvement of 
farm animals is an expensive business, because relatively 



i' 
















.•1 


F'^ 


















si 




U.-/^ 








^4 




-p 




\i 


^, 


1* 
■'J 


%."*- 


H 


. ^..-^- 







Fig. 70 — Southdown Ewe Lambs, Uniform in Conformation 

few individuals excel their parents and very few propa- 
gate their own excellence. Among other things this 
expense is due to the cost of a proven purely bred sire 
and to the large number of females necessary to allow for 
rigid selection as well as to provide the proven sire with 



COMMUNITY BREEDING 221 

maximum opportunity. Community breeding reduces 
or divides this expense, so that the burden does not rest 
so heavily on any one breeder, as the members co-operate 
in the purchase as well as the use of the sire. This system 
also provides a sufficient number of females to allows for 
rigid selection in the use of the proven sire, thus securing 
his maximum efficiency. Community breeding enables 
the breeders of a locality to secure the services of the best 
proven males at a very nominal pro rata cost for each 
offspring. 

Often a salesman representing a large importing firm 
enters a community and forms a "company" in order that 
he may sell a stallion. The company thus formed usually 
pays a high price for the horse, as the price must cover 
many expenses. There is no opportunity for selection, 
and the stallion thus thrust upon a community may not 
be of the proper type or breed to mate with the local 
mares. Thus the company plan of purchasing a stallion 
is objectionable, not alone because of the high price, but 
because the animal is often unsuited to mate with the 
mares of the community. 

A better plan, for the community in need of a sire, 
would be to send two or three of the local breeders to a 
sales stable or breeding farm. They will be given an 
opportunity to study the business at first hand; they will 
have a large number of sires from which ^to select and 
thus be able to secure one that will mate advantageously 
with the local females ; and they will be able to procure 
a sire at a very great reduction in price, as the firm is at 
no expense in selling. Likewise, when females are de- 
sired, it will be possible for a committee of two or three 
men to go and purchase the animals at one time, thus 
securing them at much less expense than if each member 
went individually to secure his animals. 

Uniformity of animals favored. — Community breeding 
promotes uniformity, as all the members of the society 
use the same or similar sires. This is significant in view 



222 BREEDING 01' FARM ANIMALS 

of the fact that our farmers, individually, have been using 
pure-bred sires to a greater or lesser degree for more than 
half a century without the characters of any one breed or 
type becoming dominant. This has resulted from lack of 
persistency of effort, due largely to breeders working 
single handed. It is apparent that there has been no 
organized effort and that our animals in the main repre- 
sent promiscuous and haphazard breeding, which, to- 
gether with the same kind of care, accounts for the large 
number of inferior and unprofitable animals to be found 
in the country. 

The importance of community breeding and persistency 
of effort in establishing and perfecting a breed is empha- 
sized by the prominence of Guernsey Island for Guernsey 
cattle, the Jersey Island for Jersey cattle, the district of 
Holstein for Holstein cattle, the district of La Perche for 
Percheron horses, and the like. It is safe to say that 
these two small islands, as well as the little districts of 
Holland and La Perche, would never have been so con- 
spicuous or especially prominent in breeding had it not 
been for the organized efforts of the breeders and their 
persistency of purpose in the breeding of cattle and 
horses. 

Community organizations for the improvement of ani- 
mals create a new interest in the subject of breeding. The 
individual breeder will do well to cast his lot with the 
majority of his neighbors and breed the same type that 
they are breeding, even though that type may not be the 
one that best suits his fancy or even the one that is best 
suited to the community. 

Market facilities increased. — While large numbers of 
animals may be produced by promiscuous breeding, they 
neither make a name for the communty as a breeding 
center nor attract buyers willing to pay appreciative 
prices. As a rule buyers are in search of animals of a 
particular type, and in order to locate them in such a 
locality would be obliged to travel throughout a wide 



COMMUNITY BREEDING 



223 



territory and at a great outlay of traveling expenses, 
locating animals here and there until the lot had been 
gathered together. Under the community system, where 
the animals are uniform, the buyer in search of any par- 




FiG. 71 — Brown Swiss Yearling Heifers of Uniform Type 

ticular type can go to the district noted for the production 
of animals of the desired type and there find them in 
sufficient numbers to meet his needs. This serves to ad- 
vertise the community, which soon becomes a noted 
breeding center, attracting large numbers of buyers will- 
ing to pay attractive prices. 

The breeding of Holstein-Friesian cattle in the vicinity 
of Syracuse. N. Y., affords a good example of the market 
facilities enjoyed by a community that has established a 
reputation for the production of a certain type of animal. 
From every country Holstein-Friesian buyers are at- 
tracted to Syracuse, and in the near vicinity can be found 
the highest priced cattle in the world. 

To establish a world-wide market such breeding opera- 
tions need not be confined to the vicinity of a large city, 
as is illustrated in the case of the small town of Lake 
Mills, Wis. Through the efforts of a few men many 
Holstein-Friesian herds were established in the vicinity 
of Lake Mills, which soon established the reputation of 



224 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

being the greatest Holstein-Friesian center in the central 
west. Buyers are being attracted from all over 
the country and from foreign lands, and prices rule 
accordingly. 

Disposal of surplus females. — Not infrequently the ex- 
cellent market facilities created by the community sys- 
tem of breeding proves the undoing of further improve- 
ment. This is likely to be the case in a locality just 
acquiring a reputation. An outside buyer in search of a 
carload or more of females comes into the community and 
offers a very fancy price for the best animals. Under 
such conditions the breeders part with their best females 
and the advancement gained is lost. 

To be most successful the herds of the community 
should have the first draft upon the female output in 
order to secure material to replace the aging animals, no 
matter what price the outside buyer may put upon them. 
If a certain breeder finds himself in possession of a num- 
ber of fancy females, more than he needs for his own use, 
it would be of advantage to the community, as well as to 
the breeder himself in the long run, to sell his surplus 
females to his neighbors and let his neighbors sell to the 
outside buyer. This may look like poor business for the 
breeder of the fancy females, but it will retain the desired 
blood in the community. It is simply carrying the advice 
that a breeder should not part with his good females and 
saying to the community that it should not dispose of its 
best blood. Such a practice would raise the general 
average of all the stock, thus giving the community a 
better reputation for producing animals of quality. This 
would increase the market facilities still more, and in the 
end the breeder who had seemingly made a sacrifice at 
first would be able to sell his second output to a very 
great advantage. 

Cow-testing associations. — Community breeding pro- 
motes the formation of cow-testing associations, which 
may become powerful agents in the improvement of dairy 



COMMUNITY BREEDING 



225 



cattle. The elimination of low-producing animals is the 
first step toward improvement, and this elimination can- 
not be brought about successfully unless records of pro- 
duction of each cow are kept systematically. Cow-test- 
ing associations are organizations of dairymen having for 
their object the determination of the production of the 
individual cows in the herd, thus supplying the informa- 
tion necessary to judicious elimination. 




Fig. 72 — Ayrshire Cows Uniform in Type and Color 



The methods of procedure in these associations differ 
widely, as they are organized in various ways and under 
various plans, each with due regard to its own local con- 
ditions. The essential feature in an organization of this 
sort is to employ a reliable, painstaking man to do the 
work. The expense to the breeder varies widely, though 
in a herd of 25 milking cows it will cost, annually, ap- 
proximately $1 a cow. Associations have been in success- 
ful operation in many foreign countries and in several 
states of the union, and it would seem that dairymen 
should avail themselves more generally of these organi- 
zations, especially in view of the fact that not infre- 
quently members increase the productivity of their cows 
25 to 50 per cent during the first year simply through 
the elimination of animals whose inferiority was revealed 
by the results of the tests made by the association. 



226 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

Advanced register testing promoted,— While the test- 
ing association increases the productivity of the herd by 
eliminating" the inferior animals, it does not improve the 
individuals except as it stimulates better methods of care 
and management. Individual advancement calls for im- 
proved breeding, and, as has been stated, to mate dairy 
cattle judiciously, it is essential to know not only the 
performance of the animals thus mated, but the records 
of production of their ancestors as well. To provide this 
information advanced registers were established. 

Community breeding promotes the formation of testing 
associations, which in turn promotes advanced register 
testing, by materially reducing the cost of testing for 
members of the association, since the representative of 
the co-operative breeders' society supervising the work 
can make the tests in circuits without loss of time and 
with a saving in traveling and other expenses. This is 
especially true of those breeds that require a one or two- 
day test each month, as the cow-testing association repre- 
sentative can do both the association and the advanced 
register testing at the same time, providing, of course, 
that suitable arrangement be made in advance with the 
various breeders' associations. On account of the im- 
portance of official testing of dairy cows to the individual 
breeder and to the dairy industry generally, the officials 
in charge of the advanced register work in many of the 
states favor this co-operative arrangement. 

Educational features. — The greatest benefit from com- 
munity breeding is the friendly spirit which it fosters 
among the farmers of a community. It tends to stimulate 
interest in improved methods and provides a means for 
the education of men in the breeding, feeding and man- 
agement of their animals. However well educated a 
breeder may be, he is always confronted with questions 
which he little understands, and which he must contin- 
ually seek to comprehend. In order to pursue success- 
fully the business, he must secure all the information that 



COMMUNITY BREEDING 22/ 

is obtainable. The constant counsel of his brightest and 
keenest associates will prove invaluable. 

A community breeders' society offers its members an 
opportunity to keep themselves informed on all matters 
pertaining to success in their work. Through meetings 




Fig. 73 — Berkshire Swine True to Type 

of the society the members exchange helpful ideas and 
get the experience of prominent breeders, who may be 
invited to address and meet with them. The experience 
of many men makes it possible to avoid and remedy many 
evils and annoyances with which breeders have to contend. 

The community breeding movement stimulates the 
formation of co-operative societies, through which much 
of the business of the community is transacted. With a 
thoroughly competent man in charge of the business, 
these societies have given excellent results. The mem- 
bers meet at regular intervals to discuss topics pertaining 
to the business. This stimulates a friendly rivalry and 
fosters a better social spirit in the community generally. 

The young breeder. — Even though a close student of 
the principles of breeding as well as of types and breeds, 
the young breeder lacks experience with animals. This 
he should get by association with a good herd and by 
intimate counsel with men who are in the active business 
of breeding. 



228 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

The young breeder, wishing to make his money go as 
far as possible, often begins by making the vital mistake 
of purchasing young stock. Since a very large number of 
young things come to but little, he soon finds himself in 
possession of a mixed lot of animals out of which nothing 
really worthy can be derived. The best way to get a start 
in the breeding of pure-bred animals is to obtain the 
foundation stock from a reputable breeder who can be 
persuaded to part with some of his proven animals, even 
though it is necessary to take those possessing consider- 
able age, providing they are still fertile. The beginner 
has no call to pay extreme prices, as he cannot sell to 
advantage until he has acquired a reputation as a breeder 
and established himself in the confidence of the general 
public. 



CHAPTER XXI 
SEX IN BREEDING 

The commercial value of farm animals often depends 
to a considerable measure on their sex. If a means could 
be devised, therefore, for controlling the sex of ofifspring, 
it would be of much value to the breeder. Endless at- 
tempts to do this have been made, but none of the 
theories have withstood the test of careful experiment. 
As there is but one alternative in the case, any theory, 
no matter how absurd, is certain to come true half the 
time. 

The theories advanced for sex determination may be 
divided into two groups ; first, those which depend on 
controllable external factors such as the food, climate, 
chemical agents, will power, and the like; and, second, 
those which depend upon internal factors centering about 
the germ cells, and which, of course, are beyond the con- 
trol of the breeder. 

Equality in number of the sexes. — Data gathered from 
various sources seem to indicate that the two sexes are 
produced in practically equal numbers. The relative num- 
ber of males per lOO females is given for horses as 99, 
for cattle 94, for sheep 102, for swine 104, and for poultry 
95. In Europe a study involving 60,000,000 human births 
showed an average of 106 males to every 100 females. 

SEX DETERMINATION BY EXTERNAL 
FACTORS 

A few of the more common external theories that have 
{gained popular credence, but which, so far as present knowl- 
edge goes, contain no basis in truth, will be reviewed before 
considering the internal factors. The approximate equality 

229 



230 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



of the sexes in all sorts of natural environments indicates 
the improbability of sex control by external conditions. 

Time of breeding. — It is stated that the sex is deter- 
mined by the degree of maturity of the egg cell at the 
time of service. If the service takes place early in the 
period of estrum or heat the offspring will be a male; if 
later, a female will result. Some persons say the 
reverse. 

This theory is disproved by the results of ordinary 
farm practice. When males and females run together, 
the service always takes place during the early stages of 
the period of estrum in the female, which should make 
the offspring practically all of one sex, yet the proportion 
of males and females produced is approximately equal. 
Alternating ova. — It is said that the ova are alternately 
male and female, and that the sex of the offspring can 
be controlled by the choice of the proper estrum for 
service. Thus, if the last young was a male, then mating 
at the first estrum as well as third, fifth and so on, would 

produce females, where- 
as the second, fourth, 
sixth and. so on periods 
would result in males. 

This theory is also dis- 
proved by the results of 
farm practice, especially 
in horse breeding, where 
males follow males and 
females follow females 
without the alternating 
period of estrum, it being the custom to breed mares on 
the ninth day after foaling. 

Male and female testicles. — The claim is made that one 
testicle is naturally male and the other female. Thus the 
sex of the offspring will depend upon the source of the 
particular sperm cell taking place in the fertilization of 
the ovum. The same claim is made for the ovaries of 




Fig. 74 — Jersey Bull "Raleighs Fairy Boy" 



SEX IN BREEDING 23 1 

the female. These theories have been disproved by the 
fact that males with but one testicle and females with 
but one ovary have produced male and female offspring. 

Sexual excitement. — It is stated that extreme sexual 
excitement on the part of the female is certain to result 
in male offspring, although some persons say the reverse. 
This theory is rather difficult to prove or disprove, but 
the strongest argument against it is the fact that the ad- 
herents are about equally divided as to the sex of the off- 
spring. Either one is sure to be correct half the time 
on the average. 

Age and vigor. — The claim is made that the older 
parent will determine the sex. The same claim is made 
for the more vigorous parent. Both claims are disproved 
by the results of farm practice, where young as well as 
old males sire both males and females, and where weak 
as well as strong males sire offspring of both sexes. 

Food supply. — The statement is often made that the 
sex is determined by the nutrition of the female. The 
assumption is that the development of the female young 
demands greater amounts of food and more favorable 
conditions than does the production of males. To sub- 
stantiate this, the claim is made that statistics reveal the 
fact that in countries which have been ravaged by war, 
and the food supply of the inhabitants diminished, an 
increased proportion of male children is found. 

While there is an abundance of more or less conflict- 
ing data upon this matter, we again turn to the results 
of farm practice to disprove the theory, especially among 
the higher animals — horses, cattle, sheep and swine. 
Mares in the lowest state of vitality give birth to oft"- 
spring of both sexes. The same is true of all farm 
animals. 

SEX DETERMINATION BY INTERNAL FACTORS 

In recent years there has been a growing belief that the 



232 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



factors determining sex are internal and that they are .con- 
nected with the germ cells. This belief is strengthened by 
studies made with bees, squash bugs, and the like, as well 
as by the behavior of twins in man. 

There are two kinds of twins ; first, ordinary twins, 
which come from two separately fertilized eggs, and, 
second, "identical twins," that have their origin in one 




Fig. 75 — Jersey Cow "Jacoba Irene" 

egg cell. Of the former, approximately 30 per cent in 
man are reported as being of the two sexes, while "iden- 
tical twins" are always of the same sex. This is given 
as evidence that the sex is determined at the time of 
fertilization, and it shows conclusively that neither the 
nutrition nor the environment determines the sex. 

Sex differences slight. — The differences between the 
two sexes are few and slight, and mostly connected with 
reproduction. This is well illustrated in the case of 
animals that have been non-sexed, where it is often dif' 



SEX IN BREEDING 233 

ficult to tell one sex from the other by a superficial ex- 
amination. The differences between the sexes have been 
much exaggerated by the division of labor. Thus in 
seeking causes that determine the sex yve need not look 
for such factors as alter characters, other than those 
that take part in the reproduction of young. 

Influence of fertilization. — The sex of bees seems to 
depend upon fertilization. There are three forms of bees 
as regards the condition of their sex organs ; first, drones 
or males produced from unfertilized eggs ; second, work- 
ers or females which are usually sterile and which are 
produced from fertilized eggs ; and, third, queens or fer- 
tile females, also produced from fertilized eggs, but de- 
veloped in special comb cells, where they are provided 
with large amounts of special food. Here fertilization is 
the determining factor as to the difference between male 
and female, and the food supply determines whether or 
not the female is to be fertile. 

This is a sex distinction that cannot hold in the higher 
forms, where fertilization is necessary to the develop- 
ment, whatever the sex, but it gives us evidence that sex 
determination is closely associated with the germ cells. 
Further, it indicates that the ova from which females 
develop are the equivalent of the ova from which males 
develop, plus an additional element. 

Accessory chromosome theory. — Evidence in support 
of the claim that sex is determined at fertilization is 
drawn from recent investigation in the germ cells of cer- 
tain species of insects. In the case of the common 
squash bug (anasa) the body cells of the female have 22 
chromosomes, while those of the male have but 21. The 
same is true of the germ cells of both sexes. In the proc- 
ess of reduction, preparatory to fertilization, the mature 
egg cells will, of course, be reduced to 11 chromosomes 
each. In the reduction of the male germ cells, however, 
half are reduced to 10 and half to 11 chromosomes, as 
the odd one does not split. Now, it has been observed 



234 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



that if a mature egg cell containing ii chromosomes be 
fertilized with a mature sperm cell containing ii chromo- 
somes also, the embryo will have 22 chromosomes and a 
female will result. On the other hand, if fertilization is 
accomplished by a sperm cell containing 10 chromo- 
somes, then the embryo will have 21 chromosomes and 
the offspring will be a male. This is illustrated diagram- 
matically as follows : 

Egg 11 chromosomes -f- sperm 11 chromosomes = 22 =: female 
Egg 11 chromosomes -j- sperm 10 chromosomes = 21 = male 

The sex of the individual in such cases depends upon 
which sort of sperm cell fertilizes the egg cell. The male 
and female offspring are approximately equal as the 
mature sperm cells containing 10 and 11 chromosomes 
are equally numerous. Evidence of a similar nature has 

been observed from 
other sources, and in 
all cases reported the 
female contains the 
larger number of 
chromosomes. 

From evidence sim- 
ilar to the foregoing, 
the belief is gaining 
rapidly that the sex 
of the individual is in 
some manner related 
to an unpaired or odd 
structural element in the egg or sperm cell. Upon the 
existence of such an unpaired element in the germ cells 
may depend the explanation of the unequal transmission 
of certain characters among the sexes. 

Sex limited inheritance. — It seems that certain char- 
acters are transmitted to one sex but not to the other. 
The common example is that of a cross between a barred 




Fig. 76 — Galloway Bull, a Prize Winner 



SEX IN BREEDING 235 

Plymouth Rock and a non-barred breed, as Brown Leg- 
horns among fowls, although the same is true of color 
blindness in man and some other color characters. If a 
barred Plymouth Rock male is crossed with a Brown 
Leghorn female, all of the offspring will be barred like 
the male. But if a Brown Leghorn male is mated with 
a barred Plymouth Rock female, the results will be dif- 
ferent. All of the male offspring will be barred, while 
all of the females will be dark. In this case the barred 
Plymouth Rock female transmits the barring only to her 
male offspring. 

Color blindness in man is a sex-limited character. 
This defect of vision is much more common in men than 
in women. A color blind man does not transmit color 
blindness to his sons, but only to his daughters. The 
daughters, however, are normal provided the mother was, 
although they transmit color blindness to half their sons. 
Apparently, therefore, a color blind daughter could be 
produced only by the mating of a color blind man with 
a woman who transmitted color blindness, since the 
daughter, to be color blind, must have received the char- 
acter from both parents, whereas the color blind son 
receives the character only from his mother. 

The same thing is said to be true of egg-laying capacity 
among hens. We are told that a male of high egg-laying 
capacity transmits this character to all of his offspring, 
both male and female, though the capacity of the male is 
known only through his female offspring, while the 
female of high egg-laying quality transmits the character 
only to her male offspring. Thus it follows that a female 
can inherit high egg-laying capacity only from her sire, 
while a male may inherit the character either from his 
sire, his dam, or both. 

With the fact in mind, that under certain conditions 
color is sex limited, a careful search was made of the 
records of performance among horses and cattle without 
any evidence of such limitations in the production of 



236 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 




Fig. 77 — Galloway Heifers True to Type 



Speed and butter fat due to sex, although such limitations 
may exist in egg production, as this depends on the ac- 
tive functioning of the reproductive organs. True, the 
sire should be and usually is the better bred, and, there- 
fore, should be prepotent 
over the common run of 
females. Under similar 
conditions, however, the 
evidence indicates that in 
speed and butter-fat pro- 
duction the sexes are 
equi-potent, and that one 
sex is as likely to be of 
superior breeding power 
as the other (p. 162). 

Sex control not desir- 
able. — The evidence in- 
dicates that the sex of 
the individual is determined at the time of fertilization, 
and that control, especially in the higher animals, is 
beyond the power of the breeder. At first thought 
this may seem a handicap, but on analysis it appears 
to be a fortunate state of affairs. It seems undesir- 
able that the sex of farm animals should be under 
the control of the breeder, especially in view of the com- 
paratively higher values often placed on females. The 
approximate equality of numbers of the two sexes is of 
importance in general improvement. It gives a large 
number of males from which to select. This should and 
usually does result in a better grade of males than 
females, which is of advantage because of the relatively 
large number of offspring influenced by the sire. Greater 
advancement is secured in this way than would be the 
case were the number of males born limited to the num- 
ber needed for breeding, as then there would be no chance 
for selection. 



CHAPTER XXII 
PROLIFICACY IN BREEDING 

There is a close relationship between the prolificacy 
of farm animals that are kept for breeding and the profits 
arising from their production. As soon as the animal 
reaches the proper age for breeding then the relative 
profits grow less each day that it is kept without issue. 
This is due to three factors that deserve attention : First, 
the food, shelter, labor and risk of keeping an idle animal ; 
second, the absence of offspring and lack of opportunity 
to make a profit on them ; and, third, the probable en- 
couragement of sterility in the case of females that do 
not breed at an early age. This is especially true of 
dairy cattle, where there is the added financial loss due 
to lack of product. The animal breeder should give 
special attention to fertility and gradually eliminate all 
animals that are not at least fairly prolific. 

Conditions that influence prolificacy. — The productive 
powers of farm animals are influenced by the enyiron- 
ment. All factors that tend to equalize conditions are 
favorable to high fertility. A uniform supply of nutri- 
tious, easily digested foods mixed into properly balanced 
rations, together with suitable management, influence 
reproduction favorably. On the other hand, insufiicient 
and improper food, as well as lack of proper care, in- 
fluence prolificacy adversely. 

The training of race horses as well as the racing en- 
gagements render it impossible to breed them regularly. 
The developing necessary to put the dairy cow into con- 
dition to make a high record often interferes with the 
regularity of her breeding. Likewise, the fitting of 
animals for the show ring as well as their showing en- 

237 



238 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

gagements interfere with the regularity of their breeding. 
Not only is a part of the breeding animal's life spent in 
the preparation and taking part in such events, but the 
methods employed in training, developing and fitting 
often favor sterility. In fact, the conditions that influ- 
ence fertility favorably, as well as unfavorably, are much 
the same as those that cause sterility. 

High prolificacy desirable. — The importance of high 
prolificacy is often overlooked by the breeder. This is 
especially true of trotting horses, as well as of animals 
with notable showyard careers. It is the females that are 
most affected, as the males can be used for breeding 
when not on the racing or showing circuit. Among 
trotting and pacing: horses the mare capable of great 
speed is worth more for racing than for breeding, hence 
she is often kept on the track until too late in life to 
breed. Likewise, the value of the show animal is so 
great that it encourages the breeder to spend months, 
and often years, in preparation for the show ring, with 
the result that desirable animals are often never given 
a chance to reproduce themselves. This often means 
that the best individual blood of the various classes and 
breeds of farm animals is lost, which proves a very seri- 
ous handicap in the general improvement of our animals. 

It is highly desirable that the dairy cow be fully 
fertile. Here there is an intimate relation between the 
milk-producing powers and those of reproduction, due to 
the fact that the profitable milk secretion is dependent 
upon the normal functioning of the reproductive organs. 
Should the dairy cow fail to breed regularly the breeder 
loses on the keep of the cow, he loses on her milk produc- 
tion, and he loses the opportunity to make a profit on the 
calf. 

That all animals kept for breeding purposes should be 
highly fertile is emphasized by the high cost of mainte- 
nance due to the price of feed (p. 4). The cost of 
maintaining a few idle breeding animals will rapidly 



PROLIFICACY IN BREEDING 



239 



destroy the profits made by the breeding of animals. 
Lack of a full realization of this on the part of farm breed- 
ers generally has been an important factor in the de- 
crease of farm animals during the past decade. 



« 




Fig. 78 — Cheshire Barrow of Excellent Type 



Cumulative effect of prolificacy. — The relative impor- 
tance of fertility can be illustrated by comparing three 
cows, for example, of different degrees of fertility. As- 
sume these animals to be the foundation stock for given 
herds, and that one raises two calves and then goes 
barren ; that another raises four; and that the third raises 
six before she ceases to breed. Also assume that half 
of the calves are males, half females and that all descend- 
ants are fertile in the same degree as the original cows. 
The following tabulation illustrates results for five gen- 
erations : 



240 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



Number of Fertile Females at the End of Various 
Generations for Three Cows of Various Degrees of 
Fertility 





Generations 


Cows 


Calves 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


No. 1 
No. 2 
No. 3 


2 
4 
6 


1 

2 
3 


1 
4 
9 


1 

8 

27 


1 
16 
81 


1 

32 

243 



After five generations there would be but one fertile 
female descending from the first cow, whereas if all had 
been kept there would be 32 from the second and 243 
descendants from the third cow. Compare the likely 
profit from offspring, also the opportunity for improve- 
ment by selection in the three cases. Of course, the 
length of a generation may depend somewhat upon the 
fertility of the cows, and five generations of the first 
cow's descendants may not require more than one-half 
as many years as five generations in the case of the 
third cow. 

To avoid the unequal time element, let us assume three 
similar lots, but that each cow drops a calf at two years 
of age and one each year thereafter until she goes barren. 
Now, at the end of ten years there would be five cows 
in the first herd, one fertile and four barren ; there would 
be 12 in the second, eight fertile and four barren ; and in 
the third there would be 15 cows, 13 fertile and two 
barren. Further, there would be but five bull calves 
in the first ; eight in the second ; while in the third there 
would be 13 bulls. 

Prolificacy in horses. — Both mares and stallions vary 
widely in prolificacy. Some mares give birth to one or 
two foals and then go barren, some breed every other 
year, and some, are fully fertile. In general, the light 
breeds are more' fertile than the heavy breeds, although 



PROLIFICACY IN BREEDING 



241 



many draft mares are highly fertile. The most produc- 
tive period of a mare's life is from 4 to 12 years of 
age, although in many cases this period may be extended 
both ways. Occasionally a filly will breed at two years 
of age, and even before, and not infrequently individuals 
of the light breeds retain their breeding power until past 
20 years of age. 

There is a difference of opinion as to the advisability 
of breeding two-year-old fillies. It is stated that breed- 
ing at so early an age 
tends to retard develop- 
ment in both dam and 
foal. On the other hand, 
it is stated that early 
pregnancy has a tend- 
ency to stimulate the de- 
velopment of the dam, to 
increase her fertility, and 
that the first foal, if from 
a well-grown filly, stands 
just as good a chance as 
the first foal from a ma- 
ture mare. Perhaps the 
reason for much of this 
discussion lies in the 
fact that fillies at this age breed with much difficulty. 

At about 12 years of age the productive powers of most 
mares begin to wane, although some breed freely for a 
much longer period, as illustrated by the famous mares 
Green Mountain Maid, that produced 16 foals, and by 
Old Fannie Cook, that produced 15 foals, giving birth 
to twins at 22 years of age. 

Likewise, stallions vary widely in their breeding 
powers, some serving 50 mares, some 100, and, in the 
lighter breeds, some serving 150 and more mares in a 
single season. There is also much variation in the per- 
centage of mares that stallions pregnate, although this 




Fig. 79- 



Hampshire Barrow Showing Breed 
Marking 



242 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

may be due as much, if not more, to the mares as to the 
stallion. On the average, the stallion pregnates 70 to 
80 per cent of the mares served, and approximately 60 
per cent drop living foals. In other w^ords, out of every 
100 mares served 70 to 80 become pregnated and only 
about 60 give birth to living foals. Thus it w^ould seem 
that breeders should give the detailed work of breeding 
horses careful consideration in an attempt to raise this 
low birth rate. 

Prolificacy in cattle. — Among dairy cattle fertility is 
of prime importance, as continued milk production de- 
pends on the regular functioning of the reproductive or- 
gans. Though important in beef cattle also, high fer- 
tility is not so essential, as the beef cow that fails to 
breed may be fattened and sold for beef. The reproduc- 
tive organs of the heifer mature at a younger age than 
in the filly, so that cattle breed much younger in life than 
do horses. 

The most fertile period of a cow's life is from one and 
one-half to eight years of age, although this period may 
be extended both ways. As with fillies, there is a dif- 
ference of opinion as to the proper age to breed heifers. 
Heifers that are vigorous, healthy and well grown should 
be bred rather young, thus encouraging the milking habit 
at an early age. This practice has much to commend it 
(p. 311). Young heifers breed with greater regularity 
than do young fillies, because of the unconscious selec- 
tion for young breeders that has been taking place 
among cattle. 

At about 8 to 10 years of age the breeding powers 
of cows begin to wane, though many of them are reliable 
breeders until a much later period of life, as observed in 
the case of the Holstein-Friesian cow, De Kol 2d, who 
gave birth to 14 calves, the last one in her sixteenth year, 
as well as in the case of the Angus cow, Old Granny, that 
produced 25 calves, the last one in the twenty-ninth year 
of her life. 



PROLIFICACY IN BREEDING 243 

Bulls also vary widely in fertility, although their man- 
agement is such that they are seldom given full oppor- 
tunity. On dairy farms, cows are bred so as to drop 
calves in the fall of the year, whereas beef cows are bred 
so as to calve in the spring. In either case the breeding 
season is short, so that the bull is used but three or four 
months each year. The number of cows that a bull can 
pregnate depends, in part at least, upon the breed. Heavy, 
phlegmatic beef bulls are not so prolific as the lighter and 
more active dairy bulls. Further, the bulls of the heavy 
dairy breeds are often less prolific than those of the 
lighter breeds. The bull should be able to serve at least 
25 cows in a season, and when strong and vigorous may 
far exceed this number. 

Prolificacy in sheep. — There is much variation in rela- 
tive fertility among the several breeds of sheep. A fair 




Fig. 80 — Dorset Horned Lambs 

percentage of the ewes of some of the more prolific 
breeds, such as the Dorsets, produce triplets ; the ewes 
of other breeds, such as the Downs, produce a fair pro- 
portion of twins ; while in some of the less fertile breeds 
practically all of the ewes give birth to but a single off- 
spring. Further, there is equally as great variation in 
prolificacy among the individuals of a breed. 

The most prolific period of a ewe's life is from one to 



244 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

five years of age, although many individuals continue to 
breed until much later in life. While breeders differ in 
their opinion as to the advisability of breeding the year- 
ling lamb, if she is well matured and thrifty, it is prob- 
ably better to try her out the first season, particularly if 
she is very promising. If giving satisfactory results, the 
ev^e should be retained in the flock as long as she w^ill 
breed. After about the fifth breeding season the ewe's 
reproductive powers begin to wane, although an occa- 
sional one will remain fully fertile until 9 or 10 years 
of age. There are authenticated cases of ewes remain- 
ing in the breeding flock for 12 years, giving birth to from 
24 to 30 lambs and raising a large proportion of them. 

Likewise, rams vary in prolificacy, although the num- 
ber of ewes they are able to pregnate will depend much 
on their management at the mating season. The ram 
should be kept away from the flock of ewes, as this con- 
serves his energy, thereby enabling him to serve twice 
as many ewes as when running in the field with the flock. 
Where this plan is followed, the ewes are brought to the 
ram in the morning or evening while cool, when he is 
permitted to single out those that are in heat. Such 
ewes are taken out and allowed a single service, A 
thrifty ram may be permitted to serve two or three ewes 
each morning and evening, thus enabling him to care 
for 100 ewes in a season. This is twice or even three 
times as many ewes as he can care for if permitted to run 
with the flock. 

Prolificacy in swine. — The several breeds of swine vary 
widely in fertility. The bacon and semi-bacon breeds 
are, as a rule, much more prolific than the heavy lard- 
producing breeds. The more fertile breeds produce two 
large litters each year, while the less prolific breeds pro- 
duce but one litter, which often consists of a compara- 
tively small number of pigs, and these sometimes lack- 
ing in size and general thrift. Likewise, there is even 
greater variation among the individuals of a given breed. 



PROLIFICACY IN BREEDING 245 

It is a rather common practice to breed sows at six 
or eight months of age, and after raising one litter of 
pigs to fatten the sows for the market. This is not a 
good practice, for once a good brood sow is found, she 
should be retained as long as she continues to breed and 
to do well. Further, young gilts often give birth to small 
litters of pigs lacking size and thrift. Of course the 




Fig. 81 — Southdown Yearling Ram 

gilt may be tried out while young, but, if promising, she 
should be retained in the breeding herd. The most 
prolific period of a sow's life is from one to five years 
of age, although many retain their breeding powers much 
later in life. There are authenticated cases of sows re- 
maining fully fertile until 10 years of age, giving birth 
to 175 pigs, and raising a large proportion of them. 

Boars also vary widely in fertility, although the num- 
ber of sows that they are able to pregnate as well as the 



246 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

number of pigs that they are able to produce will depend 
much upon the management. The boar is often overfed 
on fattening foods and denied proper exercise, which 
materially decreases his fertility. For best results the 
boar's management at the breeding season should be 
much the same as that suggested for the ram. 

Prolificacy in poultry, — Poultry differ from other farm 
animals in that the services of the male are not necessary 
to the egg-laying function, although, of course, such eggs 
will not incubate. There is greater variation in prolificacy 
among poultry than any other class of farm animals. 
There is much variation among the several breeds as 
well as among individuals. Entire flocks of the more 
prolific breeds, such as the Leghorn, average 125 to 150 
eggs in a season, with an occasional individual laying as 
high as 300 eggs in a year. Flocks of the less prolific 
breeds, such as the Brahma, average only 40 to 50 eggs 
in a season, with many individuals running very low. 

The most prolific period of a hen's life is from eight 
months to three years of age. Some pullets begin lay- 
ing at four or five months of age, and some, hens retain 
their egg-laying powers until seven or eight years of age. 
Usually, but not always, the hen lays her largest number 
of eggs the first season, and each season thereafter gradu- 
ally diminishes in prolificacy until she ceases to lay. 

Males also vary in fertility, but on the average it is 
safe to allow one male for each 20 females. When con- 
venient it is a good plan to change males once each week. 
The male bird will begin to breed at four to six months 
of age. 

Prolificacy hereditary. — The tendency to prolificacy is 
freely transmitted from parent to offspring, as is evi- 
denced by the fertile strains among each class of farm 
animals. This is particularly noticeable in the case of 
sheep and swine. Sheep breeding records show that the 
ability to produce twins and triplets is transmitted. This 
has resulted in strains especially noted for this at- 



PROLIFICACY IN BREEDING 247 

tribute. The same is true of swine, and we have 
strains noted for their ability to produce two large litters 
of pigs each year. Likewise, there are strains of both 
sheep and swine in which the breeding powers are very 
weak, and it is necessary to keep introducing outside 
blood to keep them from becoming extinct. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
STERILITY IN BREEDING 

Success in animal breeding depends upon the ability of 
the animal to produce living young. Individual excel- 
lence, pedigree and performance count for nothing in the 
presence of sterility. From the breeder's point of view 
it matters little w^hether the inability to produce young 
depends upon the failure of union betv^^een the male and 
female germ cells, or to the death of the embryo and 
fetus, or even to premature expulsion of the fetus before 
attaining sufficient development to continue life, as each 
prevents living offspring and practically constitutes 
sterility. In this discussion, hov^ever, sterility is limited 
to the failure of a union between male and female germ 
cells. The question of the life of the embryo and fetus, 
as well as the premature expulsion of the fetus, is con- 
sidered in the discussion on abortion in breeding (p. 268). 

Prevalence of sterility. — Among farm animals sterility 
is widespread and of much more frequent occurrence 
than is commonly supposed. It occurs in both sexes, but 
in the female the genital apparatus is more complex and 
sterility more common, although of no greater impor- 
tance than in the male. The function of the male parent 
ends with the injection of healthy semen into the uterus 
or vagina of the female. In the female, however, the 
male germ cells must migrate on through the uterus and 
oviducts until they meet the female germ cell or ovum 
coming from the ovary. Here fertilization takes place, 
after which the female organs must still protect, and 
provide nutrition to the embryo for a long period of 
time. 

Much variation exists in reference to the prevalence of 
sterility among farm animals. It seems to be most common 

248 



STERILITY IN BREEDING 



249 




Fig. 82 — Red Polled Bull "Teddy's Best' 



in those animals that are kept closely confined, and hence 
becomes of prime importance in dairy cattle. This is 
particularly true in view of the fact that the value of a 
cow depends upon the normal functioning of her repro- 
ductive organs. Among 
work horses and meat- 
producing animals ster- 
ility does not attract so 
much attention, espe- 
cially with females, as it 
makes comparatively lit- 
tle difference to the 
owner whether they 
breed, or, in the case of 
horses, go to work, or 
in the case of meat ani- 
mals, go to the butcher. 

The breeder should 
make a careful study of 

sterility, as the principal if not the sole value of his animals 
depends upon their productive powers. In such cases 
failure to breed may prove a financial disaster. If a num- 
ber of valuable brood mares, for example, kept exclu- 
sively for breeding, are mated with a sterile stallion, no 
foals will be produced the following season. This re- 
sults in a total loss of anticipated income. Further, each 
mare has diminished in value through her increase in 
age, and having been idle for a year, with the tendency 
to sterility intensified. 

Causes of sterility. — Among farm animals, reproduc- 
tion occurs as a result of a union, under favorable condi- 
tions, of a mature male germ cell with a mature female 
germ cell. The former are produced in the testicles of 
the male, the latter in the ovaries of the female. Any- 
thing which interferes with the normal physiological ac- 
tivities of either male or female, or with normal sexual 
intercourse, may result in sterility. The function of re- 



250 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

production, being exceedingly complex, the causes lead- 
ing to sterility are correspondingly numerous and ex- 
ceedingly varied, and not infrequently little understood. 

Idleness and overfeeding. — Breeding animals are often 
closely confined, denied proper exercise, and fed an over- 
supply of nutritious foods in order to keep them in pre- 
sentable condition. Under such circumstances they take 
on fat rapidly and frequently fail to show signs of sexual 
desire. This is true of the male as v^ell as the female. 
The tendency to loss of sexual vigor on this account in- 
creases v^ith age, although noticeable in young males. 
The difficulty seems to be of a purely functional nature, 
and usually disappears under proper management, pro- 
viding that it be applied sufficiently early. 

The sexual vitality of many of our most richly bred 
animals is often temporarily impaired and sometimes per- 
manently destroyed in the process of fitting them for the 
show ring. While there is no effective method for over- 
coming this, yet much could be done to relieve the situa- 
tion if judges in live stock exhibitions would pay less 
attention to the amount of fat and more to the general 
form and natural vigor of the animal in the allotment of 
premiums. In fitting breeding animals for show it is 
absolutely essential that an abundant exercise accom- 
pany the preparing process, especially if the sexual vigor 
of the animal is to be preserved. 

Overwork and adverse conditions. — Farm animals that 
are subject to severe work are often inclined to be sterile 
for the time. It seems that the resources of the animal 
are exhausted in the physical labor and that no reserve 
energy remains to provide for the reproductive powers 
during this period. Likewise, adverse conditions depress 
the reproductive powers. The animal which does not 
receive sufficient food to maintain general thrift and 
afford a moderate reserve for reproduction tends to be- 
come sterile. 

Likewise, anything which results in profound depres- 



STERILITY IN BREEDING 



251 



sion of the general system is often accompanied by sus- 
pension of the powers of reproduction. Such disorders 
not only destroy sexual desire, but also prevent the forma- 
tion of germ cells, which causes absolute sterility, at 
least during the period of depression. The remedy for 
such a condition is to be found in proper management 
of breeding animals. 




Fig. 83 — Red Polled Cow "Cosy 2nd" 



Excessive sexual use. — Among males partial sterility 
is frequently due to excessive use. Naturally the breeder 
is interested in the number of females a male can preg- 
nate in a season, which often leads to excessive use, 
especially among stallions. When the number of serv- 
ices during a given day is increased the abundance of 
germ cells in the semen rapidly decrease, and if the 
services are repeated too frequently the germ cells in 
the semen become greatly diminished, thereby causing 
low fertility and sometimes sterility. The stallion and 
the bull should not be allowed more than three services 
in one day, and these only under such conditions that the 



252 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

male be given one or two days of complete rest each 
week. Under like conditions the ram may be allowed 
two or three services each morning and evening for a 
short period, while the boar should not exceed two serv- 
ices each morning and evening. 

Idle males, particularly stallions, which are closely 
confined, overfed and denied exercise often acquire the 
habit of masturbation, which leads to sterility. The 
same habit is often observed in racing stallions, when 
sexual debility is brought about by hard work on the 
track. The remedy is judicious management and es- 
pecially proper exercise. 

Timidity, irritability and excitability. — Not infre- 
quently timid females have a tendency to avoid males 
and often refuse them entirely. This is especially true 
of young heifers when approached by a boisterous bull. 
Since the behavior of the male has much to do with such 
cases, he should be taught, so far as possible, to approach 
the females quietly. 

Sexual intercourse in the mare and cow is frequently 
followed by violent expulsive efforts, which result in the 
loss of a large part or all of the semen. This is due, in 
some cases at least, to the irritability of the female. Pos- 
sibly in some cases it is due to excessive pain caused by 
abnormal males. When the expulsive efforts are due to 
irritability, the female's attention should be attracted 
for a time after the service. This may often be done by 
causing her to move about for a time. 

Females with young at their side often become much 
excited and resist the males because of the maternal 
instinct. This is especially true of mares with young 
foals by their side. In such cases the young should be 
kept out of sight and hearing of their mothers at the 
time of service. 

Size of male and female. — If the male is comparatively 
either too large or too small sterility may ensue as a 
result of imperfect or incomplete copulation. This is 



STERILITY IN BREEDING 253 

especially true of young boars trying to serve mature 
sows. Not infrequently serious accidents result from 
the use of very heavy bulls on small cows. The nature 
of the cause suggests the remedy. In case the female is 
too tall, she may be placed in a pit; or, in case the male 
is too heavy, breeding stocks, or racks, may be so con- 
structed as to bear the extra weight of the male. 

Not infrequently painful diseases of the feet and legs 
or of other parts which may cause pain during the process 
of mating serve to render the service uncertain and often 
to prevent it. 

Hybrids among animals usually sterile. — This term is 
applied to the offspring of a union of two distinct species, 
the common example among animals being the mule, 
which results from a cross between a jackass and a mare. 
The offspring resulting from a cross between a stallion 
and a jennet is known as a hinny. The mule and the 
hinny are classed as sterile, although in rare instances 
well-authenticated cases are reported of female mules 
giving birth to living young. In general, all degrees of 
fertility are found among hybrids, from extreme prolif- 
icacy in plants to absolute sterility in case of some animals. 

Freemartins often sterile. — This term is here applied 
to designate a sexually imperfect calf born twin with a 
normal male. In this case it is, of course, always sterile. 
There are three kinds of twins among cattle ; first, those 
that are both female and normal ; second, those that are 
of different sexes and normal ; and, third, those that are 
both male, in which case one is always abnormally de- 
veloped, the internal organs resembling the male, and the 
external organs the female.* In fact, this is a kind of 
hermaphroditism, and not, as commonly supposed, a 
heifer born twin with a bull. As indicated, a normal 
heifer born twin with a bull is as fertile as any other heifer. 

Hermaphrodites. — This term is applied to the animal 
in which both male and female sex organs are each found 

*Giddens and Thomson, "The Evolution of Sex," p. 41. 



254 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

more or less developed. There is wide variation in the 
degree of development of the organs, one extreme re- 
sembling males, the other females. Hermaphrodites are 
classed as sterile. 

Cryptorchids. — This term is applied to the male in 
w^hich the testicle fails to descend into the scrotum but 
remains inside the abdomen. This condition is fre- 
quently observed in horses, v^hen they are spoken of as 
"ridglings." Cryptorchids are classed as sterile, although 
the animal assumes the characteristics of a normal male. 
In fact, cryptorchid is an arrest in the development of the 
testicle, the organ being small, soft and flabby. A sim- 
ilar arrested condition is often observed in the ovaries. 
Likew^ise, both organs may undergo degeneration, the 
glands assuming a variable form and size and consisting 
of a mass of matter devoid of proper tissue. 

Diseases of the reproductive organs. — The most fre- 
quent and important cause of sterility among farm 
animals is that of diseased reproductive organs. There 
are a great number of ailments of these organs that in- 
terfere w^ith the reproductive function, many of which 
are little understood. Probably one of the most im- 
portant, if not one of the most frequent, diseases causing 
sterility, especially among the females of certain classes 
of animals, is that of cystic degeneration of the ovaries. 
This disease is very common in highly bred milk cows, 
especially in regions of intensive dairying, where the 
cattle are constantly stabled, and fed an abundance of 
artificial foods, such as distillers' grains, malt sprouts, 
and the like. The exact cause of the disease, however, 
is not known. Ovarian cysts also occur in mares, ewes 
and sows. 

Other diseases of the reproductive organs tending to 
cause sterility are persistent hymen; adhesions of vag- 
inal walls; tumors of the vulva, vagina, uterus, broad 
ligaments and ovaries ; tuberculosis of the uterus and 
ovaries; metritis, both acute and chronic, and the like. 



STERILITY IN BREEDING 255 

There is little or nothing that the breeder can do to 
remedy many of these diseases, but his attention is es- 
pecially directed to them to impress the fact that they 
constitute the most important cause of sterility among 




Fig. 84 — Berkshire Sows at Pasture 

farm animals, and also to show the fallacy of the pro- 
miscuous use of drugs and nostrums in an attempt to 
overcome sterility. In such cases an expert veterinarian 
should be consulted. 

Drugs as a remedy for sterility. — There seems to be a 
widespread opinion among breeders that certain drugs 
arouse sexual desire and hence stimulate sexual powers. 
From time to time numerous drugs have been credited 
with this power. The nature of many of the diseases 
causing sterility would seem to cast reflection upon the 
value of drugs in this connection. 

Sexual instinct is so natural and so universal among 
healthy farm animals of breeding age that nothing can 
be gained by exciting sexual desire artificially. Further 
arousing sexual desire by the use of drugs does not 
insure or even favor conception. Such attributes belong 
to every normal male and female of breeding age, and 
if they are absent it is because of some irregularity in 
the reproductive system or elsewhere that cannot be re- 
moved by the use of drugs. 



256 . BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

It is stated also that certain foods, especially those of 
an aromatic character, have the power of arousing sexual 
desire. The same claim is made for certain stimulants, 
such as calamus, pepper, powdered mustard when fed 
in connection with well-cured and sweet smelling hay. 
The advice accompanying such claims is to feed the food 
for two or three days in succession and then omit it for a 
like period, when it may be given again. Such tonics 
are valuable only in so far as they restore debilitating 
animals to health. 

Dilation of the os uteri. — There is a rather common 
belief among horse breeders that much of the sterility 
in mares is due to a closure of the neck of the womb. 
Thus, when a mare fails to conceive it is the practice to 
"open the womb." This is a questionable practice, and 
should be done only under the most sanitary conditions. 
As it is ordinarily done it cannot be too strongly con- 
demned. The rough, dirty hand of the groom, with long 
and rough finger nails, concealing an abundance of filth 
is forced through the vulva, vagina and neck of womb, 
with scant regard for their delicacy and tearing the tis- 
sues, so that the hand when withdrawn is often covered 
with blood. Even if the womb did need opening, and so 
far as is known it does not, this is certainly in violation 
of all surgical principles. 

Yeast solution in vagina. — Another questionable prac- 
tice in the handling of sterile cows which was formerly 
held in favorable repute was that of injecting a yeast 
solution into the vagina. After a careful consideration 
of the nature of the diseases causing sterility, it is in- 
conceivable how yeast introduced in the vagina could 
serve as a remedy for sterility. 

Management of breeding animals. — The care that has 
a favorable influence upon the general vigor of an animal 
must also improve its reproductive powers, as it enables 
all of the organs of the body to better perform their 
normal functions, among which is reproduction. The 



STERILITY IN BREEDING 



257 




general management of breeding animals should be such, 
therefore, as will keep them in a thrifty and vigorous con- 
dition at all times. 

In so far as possible, breeding animals should be given 
only natural foods, which should be sweet and nutritious. 
Foods rich in protein and 
ash, such as oats, wheat 
bran, clover and alfalfa, 
are preferred to starchy 
foods, such as corn and 
timothy hay. In season, 
pasture grass cannot be 
improved upon, although 
it should be supple- 
mented with grain. A 
few carrots, roots or 
tubers is a very valu- 
able addition to the ration, especially in the winter. 

Special attention should be given to the exercise — and, 
in the case of horses and cattle, to the grooming as well. 
The exercise can be provided for in the case of smaller 
animals by allowing ample range, and in the case of 
horses by putting them to work. Moderate work is ad- 
vantageous to horses, provided proper care be taken not 
to overload them. It is much better than to keep them 
tied in the stable, or even than to let them run in the 
fields, where they are exposed to accidents resulting from 
racing, playing or fighting with each other. The object 
to be attained in the management of breeding animals is 
to so feed, exercise and groom them as to keep them up 
to the very highest pitch of vigor and thrift. 



Fig. 85- 



-Poland-China Boar of Good 
Conformation 



CHAPTER XXIV 
CONCEPTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF FETUS 

The object of all breeding is that of reproduction. 
Before reproduction becomes possible, however, the 
animal must have reached the age of sexual maturity or 
puberty. Up to this time the reproductive organs are 
dormant so far as the production of functional germ cells 
are concerned. At this age sexual desire is established 
and mature germ cells are discharged. The age at which 
farm animals reach sexual maturity varies with individ- 
uals and breeds as well as with the several classes of 
animals. Much depends on the size as well as the food 
supply and the rapidity of development, although puberty 
usually occurs prior to the completion of body growth. 

Estrum, or heat. — The period of irresistible sexual de- 
sire is known as estrum, or heat, in the female. It is es- 
tablished as early as the twelfth to the fifteenth month 
in mares, fifth to the sixth month in cows, third to the 
fourth month in sows, and sheep born late in the summer 
will show it the next breeding season, although no farm 
animal should be bred at so early an age. Pullets often 
begin laying eggs as early as the fourth month. 

The frequency with which heat recurs in farm animals 
varies within rather narrow limits after once being es- 
tablished, and following parturition. The mare usually 
comes in heat in' seven to nine days after foaling, and 
each three or four weeks thereafter. The cow varies 
according to the care. If the calf is taken away she 
usually comes in heat about three weeks after parturition, 
whereas if she suckles the calf she seldom comes in heat 
for six or eight weeks, although in either case the periods 
recur with considerable regularity each three weeks 
thereafter. The sow usually comes in heat from three 

258 



CONCEPTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF FETUS 259 

to five days after weaning her pigs, and each two or 
three weeks thereafter, although the claim is made that she 
comes in heat every 9 to 12 days. The periods recur 
in the ewe every two to three weeks. The mare and the 
ewe come in heat regularly during the spring and autumn 
months, while at other seasons the period is irregular and 
often entirely absent. In carnivora estrum ordinarily 
occurs semi-annually, in the late winter and early 
autumn. 

Ovulation. — Upon, the completion of the process of 
maturation, and as a rule concurrently with estrum, the 
ovum or ova are extruded from the Graafian follicle of 




Fig. 86 — Ayrshire Bull "Bargenoch Gay Cavalier" 

the ovary. Normally, the ovum or ova pass into the ovi- 
ducts and are conveyed toward the uterus. In some 
cases, however, the ovum is not extruded from the fol- 
licle, but maintains its connection with the ovary and is 
fertilized there, constituting ovarian pregnancy. 

The exact relation of the period of heat, or estrum, to 
ovulation, as well as to fertilization, has not been defi- 



260 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

nitely determined, and conflicting views are held. In rab- 
bits it has been observed that when young are born, there 
already exists in the ovaries of the doe a number of fol- 
licles fully mature and ready to rupture. Estrum fol- 
lows immediately after birth, copulation occurs, and it is 
not until after 8 to 12 hours have passed that the follicles 
rupture and discharge the ova into the oviduct, there to 
become fertilized by the sperm cells already present. 
Such is probably the case in other animals. 

Owing to the brief duration of estrum in the cow, she 
provides a favorable opportunity for studying the rela- 
tion between estrum, ovulation, fertilization and men- 
struation. In her case investigation shows the order of 
these phenomena to be estrum, ovulation and menstrua- 
tion, proving this order is not interrupted by copulation 
and fertilization, in which case the order seems to be 
estrum, ovulation, copulation and fertilization, although 
in some cases copulation may precede ovulation. In fact, 
in the case of many animals, it seems that ovulation is 
favored and at times possibly hastened by copulation. 
This is often taken advantage of by the breeder who 
wishes to bring animals into breeding condition. 

Conception.— During the act of copulation the semen 
from the male is injected into the vagina of the female. 
In some classes of animals possibly a part of this seminal 
fluid is injected through the os uteri into the uterus. The 
essential conditions of conception, so far as the male is 
concerned, are that normal spermatozoa shall gain the os 
uteri, traverse the uterus and oviducts and meet the 
ovum. Here fertilization takes place through the union 
of one sperm cell with the ovum. Under favorable con- 
ditions development ensues, and the fertilized ovum 
gravitates along the oviduct or Fallopian tube to the 
uterus and conception is completed. 

In farm animals nothing is known of the time required 
for the spermatozoa to traverse the uterus and tubes, or 
of the time required to initiate growth after fertilization 



CONCEPTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF FETUS 261 

has been accomplished. Likewise, nothing is known of 
the time required for the fertilized ovum to gravitate 
along the tubes to the uterus. In the rabbit fertilization 
takes place 8 to 12 hours after copulation, and growth or 
segmentation begins in 10 to 12 hours after fertilization. 
It continues for 72 hours after fertilization, at which time 
the ovum reaches the uterus and its segmentation stage 
has been completed. In farm animals it probably re- 
quires a longer time, particularly as the period in woman 
is stated to be of from four to eight days' duration. 

The period of development may be divided into two 
stages : First, the stage of the embryo, extending from 
segmentation until the germ begins to assume definite 
form ; and, second, the stage of the fetus, which includes 
the remainder of the intra-uterine existence. 

Artificial impregnation. — In recent years artificial in- 
semination has been widely advocated as a remedy for 
sterility. Apparently this claim is based upon the theory 
that sterility is due to imperfect copulation because of 
physical impediment, although we know now sterility is 
usually due to other causes (p. 254). 

Artificial insemination is a comparatively easy process 
in some classes of farm animals, particularly in the case 
of fertile mares, although it is more difficult in cows be- 
cause of the structure of the organs. While it is a valu- 
able remedy in cases due to physical impediment to 
natural insemination, some exaggerated claims have been 
made regarding its efficiency. It has been stated that 
as high as 60 per cent, and even more, of mares, taken at 
random, regardless of the presence of estrum, have been 
fertilized, which, of course, is absurd. However, if the 
mares are fertile and the artificial insemination is care- 
fully made when the mares are in heat, there is no reason 
to doubt that 60 per cent and even more may conceive. 

Artificial impregnation has a commercial value which 
is attractive to breeders. A healthy male, under normal 
conditions, at each copulation discharges sufficient sper- 



262 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

matozoa to pregnate a large number of females. Since 
artificial insemination is so simple an operation, it has 
been proposed to extend the procreative power of valu- 
able males, particularly stallions, by artificial insemina- 
tion, and a variety of artificial impregnators have been 
devised with which to perform the operation. 

The chief factor to be observed in artificial insemina- 
tion are cleanliness, promptness, constant temperature 
for the semen and its secure lodgment in the os uteri 
or uterus. 

Formation of the embryo. — While the fertilized ovum 
is passing along the Fallopian tube to the uterus it under- 
goes repeated segmentation, becoming a more or less 
globular mass of cells, known as the morula or mulberry 
stage. Very soon after reaching the uterus there appears 
in the interior of the morula a little fissure-like space 
called the cleavage cavity. When this space has in- 
creased in size, the germ is said to have reached the blas- 
tula stage. At this stage the cleavage cavity is sur- 
rounded by a single layer of cells, although in mammalia 
the inner cell mass is very irregular. 

By the invagination of the single-layered blastula at 
the vegetable pole the double-layered grastula stage is 
attained. Thus the grastula stage in its typical form 
consists of two layers of cells surrounding a central 
cavity, which communicates with the exterior by means 
of a small aperture. This cavity later becomes the in- 
testinal-body cavity. The outer layer of cells is the ecto- 
derm or epiblast, and the inner layer the entoderm or 
hypoblast. 

Upon the surface of the germ at the beginning of 
grastulation there is a round whitish spot known as the 
embryonal area. This area rapidly enlarges, becoming 
oval and later pear shaped. In the line, on the long axes 
of the embryonal area, the cells become more dense, form- 
ing the primitive streak. Soon a third layer of cells 
lying between the epiblast and hypoblast begins to de- 



CONCEPTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF FETUS 263 

velop near the front end of the primitive streak, from 
v^hich point it spreads out over the germ. This layer is 
called the mesoderm or mesoblast. 

Typically the embryo now^ consists of three layers of 
cells known as the three primary germ layers — the outer 
layer or epiblast, the inner or hypoblast, and the middle 
layer or mesoblast. 




Fig. 87 — Ayrshire Cow "Kilnford Bell 3d" 

Development of the fetus. — From the three primary 
germ layers are developed the various tissues and organs 
of the body. This development may be considered as 
consisting of tw^o fundamental processes, one of special- 
ization, or the adaptation of structure to function, and 
the other of unequal growth, which results in the forma- 
tion of the various organs. 

In the main, the epiblast and the hypoblast produce 
the epithelial structures, such as the alimentary canal 



264 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

and its appendages, the glands and their ducts, the res- 
piratory tract, the spinal cord, the brain with its out- 
growths, and the like ; while from the mesoblast are 
produced the connective tissue in all its modified forms 
such as bone, cartilage, lymph, blood, fibrous and areolar 
tissue, muscular tissue, and the like. 

The completeness of the development of the fetus at 
birth varies widely, and no doubt depends, in part at 
least, upon the environment of the animal. The rabbit, 
after four weeks of intra-uterine life, is born very im- 
mature, while the guinea pig, after the same duration 
of intra-uterine existence, is much more completely de- 
veloped. The young carnivora are born very immature, 
while those of ruminants and horses are well developed. 
The rabbit must depend upon flight as a protection 
against foes, while carnivora must depend upon the chase 
for food ; in either case the animal would suffer a serious 
disadvantage from increased body weight due to the 
presence in the uterus of a number of well developed 
fetuses. 

Position of fetus. — The position of the fetus or fetuses 
in the uterine cavity is determined largely by the form 
and direction of the cavity. In farm animals the uterine 
cavity is more or less tubular in form, and normally the 
long axes of the fetus corresponds with the long axes of 
the uterine cavity. 

At first the circulation is so distributed that more ar- 
terial blood reaches the head end of the fetus, which 
causes the anterior portion to possess greater weight. 
Since, during early embryonic life, the fetus floats free 
in the amniotic sack, the greater weight of the anterior 
portion constantly tends to cause the embryo to rest 
with its head end lower than the posterior part of the 
body. 

At the beginning of pregnancy, in both single-birthed 
and twin-bearing animals, the floor of the uterus slopes 
toward the os uteri. The head end of the fetus, being 



CONCEPTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF FETUS 265 

much the heavier, tends to become directed toward the 
OS uteri. This position of the fetus is also encouraged 
by the tapering form of the uterus, w^hich is much larger 
at the OS uteri than at the Fallopian tubes. By the time 
the fetus begins to bear down on the floor of the uterus, 
it has so enlarged that it cannot turn upon its own axis 
and thus has become fixed in the uterine cavity so far 
as changing ends is concerned. In the larger farm 
animals, therefore, the fetus normally presents the head 
at the time of birth. 

Among multiple-birthed animals, the uterus lies upon 
the abdominal floor and has much less influence upon 
the position of the fetuses. Thus we find less uniformity 
in the presentation of fetuses at birth, although the tend- 
ency is for the head to appear first. 

Relative size of fetus.— The relation between the size 
of the fetus and the dam varies with the several classes 
of farm animals, although within rather narrow limits. 
In the mare the new-born foal usually weighs from eight 
to 10 per cent of her body weight. The drain upon the 
mare in the reproduction of young is very great. She 
not only carries the fetus a long time, but must nurture 
the offspring for four to six months after birth. Thus 
the production of young makes a demand upon her sys- 
tem for practically 18 months. 

In the cow there is greater nutritive reserve, and the 
young is usually larger, as re- 
lated to the size of the dam, 
than in the case of the mare, 
usually weighing about 10 to 
12 per cent of the body weight 
of the dam, although the intra- 
uterine existence is shorter, as 

is also the period of nursing, fig. ss-hampshire sow 

which materially decreases the 

demands upon the system of the dam and favors increased 
reproductive power. 




266 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

In the ewe the relative size of the fetus depends some- 
what on the number presented. In the case of single 
births the fetus weighs from eight to lo per cent of the 
body weight of the dam, whereas in the case of twins and 
triplets their combined weight often runs as high as 12 
to 15 per cent of the body weight of the dam. Likewise, 
in the sow the relative size of the fetuses depends some- 
what on the number presented and to some extent on the 
size of the dam. As a rule, the combined weight of the 
fetuses runs from seven to 10 per cent that of the dam, 
although sows usually breed twice annually. 

Intra-uterine influences. — There is a widespread tradi- 
tion that the developing fetus can be influenced through 
the mental impression or the imagination of the dam. 
This is especially true in the case of abnormalities and 
color. Persons with whom the tradition is strong often 
display a blanket of pleasing color before the eyes of the 
mare at the time of copulation, in the belief that they can 
control the color of the foal. Peculiarly marked calves 
are said to owe their color markings to strong mental 
impressions created by swine while pasturing with the 
pregnant dam. 

Among humans mental impressions and nervous condi- 
tions generally are often invoked to explain birth marks 
and other abnormalities, such as the loss of a toe, or the 
presence of two thumbs on the same hand. The same 
theory is also used to explain abnormalities among 
animals. 

From our consideration of the formation and de- 
velopment of the fetus we know that the supposed 
assumption on which such claims rest has absolutely 
no basis in fact. During its development the fetus 
floats free in the amniotic incasement and is not so 
intimate with the mother as is popularly supposed. True, 
it is dependent upon the mother for nourishment, but 
there is no organic connection or nervous interrelation 
whatever. Further, if females were so susceptible as this 



CONCEPTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF FETUS 267 

to the surrounding sights, think what a fixture of colors 
all offspring would possess ! Also think what a jumble of 
deformed offspring would appear, as females are sub- 
jected to all sorts of sights and experiences during the 
many weeks of fetal development, and it would be strange 
indeed if one out of a thousand escaped contact with some 
experience sufficiently impressive to "mark" the new 
born. 

Telegony. — This term has reference to the supposed 
influence of the male upon the female in such a way as 
to influence future offspring by other sires. It is the 
same as the influence of previous impregnation, or infec- 
tion of the germ. 

There is a prevailing belief among certain breeders that 
the influence of the first impregnation is permanent and 
will affect all future offspring. The claim is made that 
a female mated with a male of a different breed will never 
breed pure thereafter. Darwin gave credulence to this 
belief by reporting a mare bred to a quagga, which re- 
sulted in an offspring striped after the manner of the sire. 
Later the mare bore two colts by stallions, both of which 
were marked with' bars on the shoulders and legs, sup- 
posedly showing the effects of the quagga upon the off- 
spring of the stallion. The facts concerning the appear- 
ance of bars upon the shoulders and legs are not ques- 
tioned, but it should be remembered that occasionally 
such markings appear in young horses of the purest 
parentage. 

Recent investigations by Ewart and others, repeating 
the same experiment on an extended scale, failed to find 
trace of the quagga beyond his own offspring. Formerly 
dog fanciers were strong in their belief in telegony, but 
experiments show that the influence of the first dog do 
not extend beyond his own offspring. No doubt this 
belief gained currency concerning dogs because of their 
peculiar mating habits, as one can be sure of the sire only 
in case the bitch is securely isolated. Like intra-utcrine 
influences, telegony has absolutely no basis in fact. 



CHAPTER XXV 
ABORTION AND PREMATURE BIRTH 

By the term abortion is meant the expulsion of the 
fetus at any period from the date of impregnation until 
it is sufficiently developed to survive after birth. When 
a living fetus is expelled prematurely but in a state of 
development which renders survival possible, it is desig- 
nated premature birth. These disorders, particularly 
abortion, are very closely associated with sterility. In 
fact, many females thought to be sterile actually conceive, 
but expel their fetuses in such an undeveloped condition 
that the accident goes unnoticed. Practically the results 
are the same, but the breeder should make a careful study 
of his animals, m order to locate those that are aborting 
so that he may give them proper treatment. 

Prevalence of abortion. — While there are no statistics 
available, yet abortion is far more prevalent than is com- 
monly supposed. Particularly is this true of animals 
which are closely confined, such as dairy cattle. In the 
lowering of breeding efficiency among dairy cattle abor- 
tion easily takes first place. Its ravages throughout 
dairy districts exact incalculable toll. Because of the 
ravages of abortion, it has been estimated that few of 
the highly bred and closely confined dairy herds exceed 
50 per cent of their reproductive capacity. This estimate 
may be too high, but certain it is infectious abortion 
works great destruction in large dairy herds. In small 
herds, however, with two or three heifers being bred each 
year, the loss is much less and frequently passes un- 
noticed. Likewise, in herds of mature cows the loss from 
abortion is ordinarily slight, owing to the fact that in- 
fectious abortion is most common in heifers. 

Kinds of abortion. — ^There are two distinct forms of 

268 



ABORTION AND PREMATURE BIRTH 269 

abortion in farm animals which should be clearly under- 
stood by all breeders: First, accidental abortion, in 
which, owing" to accident or disease of either the fetus 
or dam, the fetus may be expelled dead or in such a state 
of disease as to rerjder it impossible for it to live. Second, 
infectious abortion, in which an infection of the fetus 
and its membranes causes the death and expulsion of 
the fetus, or its expulsion in a living and enfeebled state 
at any period of pregnancy, without directly inducing 
material evidence of disease in the mother. Infectious 
abortion is by far the most troublesome, particularly in 
animals that are closely confined and highly fed on suc- 
culent and artificial foods. 

Accidental abortion. — This is produced by any cause 
operating to disconnect the union of the membranes from 
the uterus. Thus a pregnant female may abort by rea- 
son of almost any cause 
that very generally disturlis 
her system, as the influence 
of too stimulating a diet, or 
the reverse ; the feeding of 
ergot on rye, the smut of 
corn or other grains, and 
iced grasses, as well as 
large drafts of ice cold 
water. The more mechani- 
cal causes are falls, blows 

1 ■ I , , ■ ■ Fig. K3 — Aberdeen Angus True to Type 

and violent exertion, as m 

pulling; also traveling on muddy or slippery roads, jump- 
ing fences, and the like. 

Among dairy cows kept in uncomfortable stanchions, 
on slippery, wet floors, there may at any time occur a 
slip or fall which may imperil the life of the fetus. The 
jamming and jolting suffered by pregnant animals dur- 
ing transportation by rail is liable to bring about injuries 
which may lead to abortion. 

Any disease of the dam may involve the fetus and 




270 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

bring about its death. A miscarriage may leave the or- 
gans in so weakened a condition that they cannot retain 
the fetus, particularly if conception takes place immedi- 
ately following the miscarriage. Irritation of the vagina 

__, ._ is said to cause abortion. 

/'" \^ Thus instances have been 

C ." observed where animals 

f"-^ / „ ^ thought to be in estrum, al- 

•: '' though really pregnant, have 

-^.fc .' aborted immediately follow- 

ing copulation. 

It is often difficult to rec- 

FiG. 90— Large Yorkshire Boar OgnizC impending abortion, 

at least until near its com- 
pletion. Usually the animal aborts before the breeder 
becomes aware that she is threatened. The first evidence 
observed is the fact that abortion has taken place, as is 
shown by the presence of the fetus and membranes. At 
other times, however, the animal shows more or less of 
the characteristic signs of parturition (p. 284). 

The prevention of accidental abortion is the avoidance 
of all causes which may have a tendency to produce it. 
The proper care of breeding and pregnant animals can- 
not be too forcibly impressed upon the breeder. Preg- 
nant females should be so fed, exercised and groomed 
as to keep them in the highest possible condition of thrift 
at all times. 

Infectious abortion. — The vast majority of abortions 
in farm animals is due to infection of the genital organs. 
Though little understood, infectious abortion is known 
to be due to a small germ which probably gains access 
to the uterus during estrum or during parturition. Infectious 
abortion causes great economic losses among cows and 
mares and has been observed in ewes and sows. Since 
the method of infection as well as what is known of the 
means of control and eradication are similar in all classes 
of farm animals, and since the disease is more prevalent 



ABORTION AND PREMATURE BIRTH 27I 

in cattle, it will be considered from the standpoint of the 
cow, although the suggestions apply to all farm animals. 

Avenue of infection. — The manner in which the infec- 
tion is carried from one animal to another, as well as 
the avenue by which the infection reaches the fetus, are 
very important factors from the standpoint of the control 
of the disease. The claim is made that the infection not 
only passes from animal to animal, but that man may 
carry it from one stable to another. However this may 
be, no doubt the most important conveyer is the male. 
A bull after serving a cow possessing the disease is likely 
to transmit it to all cows with which he subsequently 
comes in contact. 

The chief avenue of infection is the os uteri, and the 
most favorable time for invasion is thought to be during 
estrum. As this is the 
time at which copulation 
takes place the infection 
easily passes from the ex- 
posed bull into the uterus 
of the cow. Under favor- 
able conditions, possibly, 

the uterus may become in- p,^_ qi-tamworth sow -oakhill fancy" 
fected at the time of par- 
turition and inoculate the next fetus, causing abortion. 
There seems little opportunity for the uterus to become 
infected at any other time, as the sealed os uteri is no 
doubt impregnable to contagious abortion germs. 

Control of infectious abortion. — There is no sure and 
reliable method for preventing an animal from becoming 
infected with contagious abortion, no means of curing a 
pregnant animal having the infection in her uterine cavity 
and no means of definitely eradicating the disease. It is 
stated that carbolic acid, either fed in 4 per cent solution 
on grain, or given hypodermically in 2 per cent solution 
acts as a specific against abortion. The same claim is 
made for methylene blue. This is given in doses of from 




2/2 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

lo to 12 grams, preferably in capsules, night and morning 
early in pregnancy, for seven days, and is repeated at four- 
week intervals during the period of gestation. No doubt 
the best methods for combating contagious abortion are pre- 
cautions against the use of infected bulls, isolation of 
infected cows, and the free use of disinfectants. 

Avoid using infected bulls. — Since the infected bull is 
thought to be the chief conveyer of the infection, every 
precaution should be taken to keep the bull free from the 
infection. As far as possible new cows should not be 
brought into the herd until known to be free from in- 
fection. Further, the bull should not be permitted to 
serve outside cows. 

Isolate infected cows. — The cow that has aborted or 
shows signs should be removed at once from the stable 
occupied by other cows and effectively isolated. The 
eection of the stable she occupied should be thoroughly 
disinfected with a i to i,ooo solution of corrosive sub- 
limate. Even with the greatest precaution in this respect, 
the disease is likely to spread through the stable. 

Use disinfectants freely. — Since the infection of con- 
tagious abortion is most serious in young heifers, they 
should receive careful attention to keep them free from 
infection if possible. It is not known just how early in life 
the infection of contagious abortion ma}^ invade the 
uterine cavity of the virgin heifer. It seems certain, 
however, that when once infected the germs lie in wait 
to cause either sterility or abortion. Dr. Williams, who 
has made a careful study of infectious abortion in cattle, 
gives the following advice* : 

"The sexual hygiene should begin with the birth of the calf, at 
least to the extent that it be kept in cleanly surroundings with 
abundant room. 

"Believing that the most favorable date for the invasion of the 
infection is the period of estrum, the more frequently the virgin 
heifer is in estrum prior to breeding, the more probable that the 
infection will have invaded the uterus to cause first, sterility, or 



*Dr. W. L. Williams, "Report of the New York State Veterinary College," 
1911-12, pp. 107-111. 



ABORTION AND PREMATURE BIRTH 2/3 

later, should conception occur, is prepared to cause abortion, pre- 
mature birth, retained placenta, etc., the breeder should have care 
that no unnecessary delay occur in breeding. Pending the age and 
development at which the breeder desires to breed a heifer, it would 
seem desirable to guard against infection as far as practicable by 
disinfecting the vagina for three or four days during and imme- 
diately followmg the estrum, while the cervical canal is in a dilated 
state. 

"At present, until more definite knowledge is gained of just 
how early the infection invades the genital canal of virgin heifers, 
we advise and urge that vigorous efforts at disinfection of the 
genital organs of virgin heifers be instituted approximately six 
weeks prior to the desired date of breedmg and continued until 
conception is assured. That is, when a virgin heifer has advanced 
to within six weeks of the period when it is desired to breed her, 
and she is observed to be in estrum, begin special care of the genital 
organs and continue through the following estrual period until the 
estrual period when it is intended to breed her, and after breeding 
continue the disinfection through yet another estrual cycle. If she 
has conceived from the service, the disinfection during this period 
has a protective value while the uterine seal is being developed If 
ehe fails to conceive from the first cooulation, the continuance of 
the douching tends to overcome the sterility present and guards 
against a new invasion of infection. 

Admittedly, we cannot entirely disinfect the mucous membrane 
of the vagina. All we can do is to inject into the vagina a solution 
of a disinfectant which will not materially irritate the organ. In 
heifers we cannot ordinarily disinfect the uterine cavity, the cervical 
canal being so narrow, undilatable, tortuous and irregular that safe 
penetration is impracticable and we must content ourselves by 
handling to the best of our ability the available vagina. If infection 
has preceded our efforts and invaded the uterine cavity, it is 
beyond the reach of the surgeon and must either be destroyed by 
the bactericidal power of the organ itself or remain in position to 
threaten disaster later. 

"As in other disinfection work, the selection of a particular agent 
is not so important as the method of handling the agent selected. 
It is essential that no great degree of irritation should be caused, 
since any marked irritation leads to inflammation of the vaginal 
mucosa, to be followed later by increased infection of the inflamed 
mucous membrane. 

"In our experience we have had the most satisfactory results 
with Lugol's solution. Next in value have been the soap-containing 
coal tar disinfectants, especially bacterol The latter has a special 
value in exterior washing, the soap content materially adding to the 
cleansing value 

"The highest available type of disinfection calls first for the 
washing of the vulva, tail, buttocks and surrounding parts with a 
warm, soapy disinfectant, such as a 15 per cent solution of bacterol, 
which is well borne by cattle. 



274 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

"After cleansing the exterior, the washing of the vagina with a 
warm 25 per cent to 0.5 per cent of Lugol's solution should follow. 

"The mechanism of washing is best and most economically con- 
ducted by means of a five-gallon vessel fitted with a metal stopcock 
near the bottom, over which is slipped a plain pure gum horse 
stomach tube. The vessel is then elevated and moved along behind 
the row of cows upon a manure track or a track specially con- 
structed for the purpose. The disinfecting fluid flows by gravity 
either upon the exterior parts or into the vagina. The pure gum 
stomach tube is well rounded, even and smooth, so that it is readily 
pushed into the vagina and is sufficiently elastic to insure against 
physical injuries to the parts. It is readily cleansed and withstands 
boiling. 

"In washing the vagina the tube should be introduced at least 
6 to 8 inches. The mucous membrane of the vagina being disposed 
in longitudinal folds, a small quantity of fluid or other substance 
introduced comes in contact with only the summits of the mucous 
folds and it is therefore essential to good results that the fluid 
should be allowed to flow freely into the vagina until it is well 
distended and the mucous folds obliterated, when the fluid is 
promptly expelled. 

"A 5 per cent of warm Lugol's solution is well borne, as a rule, 
daily for one to two weeks, when it begins to irritate the vagina. 
It then becomes advisable to decrease the strength to 0.25 per cent 
and reduce the frequency of application to two or three times a 
week. .Care is to be taken in properly measuring the strength of the 
solution and constant watchfulness exercised that irritation shall 
not occur. Experimentally we have found that when a heifer is 
in estrum, the vagina may be freely washed with 0.25 per cent of 
Lugol's solution one hour prior to copulation without interfering 
with conception. 

"Whenever at all practicable virgin heifers should be bred to a 
bull which has not copulated with cows nor with other heifers than 
those which have been handled as above. 

"The bull should be handled on parallel lines recommended for 
the heifers, the same solution sufficing for both sexes. The mech- 
anism of washing the penis and sheath of the bull is analogous to 
that prescribed for heifers The stomach tube being too large, a 
pure gum horse catheter is substituted and a small pail of one 
gallon capacity substituted for the larger pail for cows. The horse 
catheter being too short, is to be elongated by splicing with another 
piece of tubing. The vessel containing the fluid is elevated to a 
height of at least 6 feet, the catheter inserted well into the sheath 
and the opening of the sheath compressed by the operator's hand 
until the entire sheath is completely filled and distended, when it is 
allowed to escape. The bull should be washed both before and after 
each service in an attempt to guard him alike against infecting and 
becoming infected. 

"When three weeks have elapsed since copulation and estrum 
does not occur, it may be assumed that the heifer is pregnant, 



ABORTION AND PREMATURE BIRTH 275 

which assumption may be verified by rectal palpation by a veter- 
inarian trained in the work. The uterus is enlarged, elongated, 
smooth and tense from contained fluid. One horn is distinctly 
larger than the other (except in twins arising from simultaneous 
ovulation from both ovaries), and the ovary corresponding to the 
enlarged horn bears a typical corpus luteum of pregnanc3\ which 
may be readily felt. 

"Conception having become assured according to the above 
plan, and having confidence in the efficient guardianship of the pla- 
cental filter and uterine seal, no further care is required so far as 
the welfare of the fetus is involved. If the conception has occurred 
in a clean uterus, a healthy calf will eventually follow; if infection 
resides in the uterine cavity, and the uterine seal has formed, it is 
beyond our power to affect its destiny. The pregnant heifer may 
accordingly be left alone, unless evidences of severe vaginitis or 
other vaginal disease appears, which may call for special attention. 

"If pregnancy proceeds normally, no interference is called for 
until the date of parturitioi. draws near. At this time the vaginal 
mucous membrane becomes congested, secretes much mucous and a 
considerable discharge from the vulva occurs. The uterine seal dis- 
solves as parturition approaches, and the cervical canal becomes 
open and dilated, offering once more an open and inviting avenue 
for infection. There again for three to six days one may well renew 
the washings of the vagina for iwo reasons. The cleanliness of the 
vagina lessens the amount of infection present ready to invade the 
uterine cavity as soon as the uterine seal is destroyed, and even 
more, immediately after the expulsion of the fetus. 

"A second reason of great significance is the danger of infection 
to the new-born young. Nocard has claimed, and substantiated his 
claim by strong evidence, that calf scours is due to an infection 
frequently resident in the vagina and that the calf acquires the fatal 
infection en route in the vagina, through the freshly ruptured 
stump of the naval cord. Aside from these, sows and heifers 
should be kept clean at this time as a part of general cleanliness 
demanded today in sanitary dairying. 

"Should the heifer abort, calve prematurely, or calving at full 
term suffer from metritis, as expressed by retained placenta or by 
uterine discharge, immediate and vigorous measures should be taken 
to restore the uterus to normal conditions at the earliest pos- 
sible date. 

"If the placenta has been retained, its expulsion should be 
favored as far as possible. Unfortunately, retained placenta is a 
far more serious condition than most breeders and veterinarians are 
willing to admit. The mortality is high, much higher today than 
that of milk fever. It interferes seriously with the milk flow during 
the ensuing milking period, and in a disastrously large percentage 
of cases causes obstinate or hopeless sterility. It is a serious infec- 
tion, commanding the lif^'hcst veterinary skill and closest attention 
for its proper handhng. 

"Behind retained placenta is always metritis, especially placen- 



2/6 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

titis, and the foundation for that in nearly, if not all cases, is the 
infection of contagious abortion within the uterine cavity. Accord- 
ingly, the foundation for retained afterbirth is present before abor- 
tion or birth has occurred, and in our judgment, the foundation had 
been laid for the retention prior to conception, or shortly thereafter, 
prior to the formation of the uterine seal." 

Age immunity in contagious abortion. — While the 
theory that one or even two abortions immunizes an 
animal against the infection has no basis in fact, yet the 
statement that after a heifer has aborted once or twice 
she is less liable to abort again, is true. Contagious abor- 
tion is largely a heifer disease. Thus, the heifer that has 
aborted twice has advanced two years in age and is that 
much removed from the most critical period, her first 
pregnancy, and so is less liable to abort. In this connection 
it must be remembered that abortion favors sterility, and 
the animal that has aborted once or twice is less likely 
to conceive again, and of necessity cannot abort ; although 
should she conceive she is less likely to abort, simply 
because she is past the critical period. The healthy 
heifer, however, that has passed through her first and 
second pregnancy is a far safer breeder in later years 
than the heifer that has aborted. 



CHAPTER XXVI 
PREGNANCY AND GESTATION 

The terms pregnancy and gestation are synonymous 
and refer to that period of time during which the young 
is developing in the uterus of the mother. This period 
extends from the time of the fertilization of the ovum 
in the Fallopian tube until the birth of the fetus. The 
formation of the embryo and development of the fetus 
was considered in the discussion on conception. We 
now come to a consideration of the mother. The modifi- 
cations necessitated by the developing fetus, as well as 
the ordeal of giving birth, exert a profound influence 
upon her; and she in turn, is largely responsible for the 
condition in which the young are born. 

Signs of pregnancy. — While there are many signs of 
pregnancy on which at times we can place more or less 
reliance, they are all liable to be misleading. Not infre- 
quently an animal presents the general appearance of 
pregnancy for a long period of time, but later resumes 
her normal condition without bringing forth young, while 
in other cases there may be but slight symptoms when, 
unexpectedly, parturition occurs, to the great surprise 
of the breeder. 

The first sign of pregnancy upon which reliance is 
placed is the cessation of the periods of heat. As a gen- 
eral rule, fertilization and conception stop the appear- 
ance of estrum, which does not recur again during the 
period of gestation. During this period the female per- 
sistently refuses the attention of the male. Such is not 
uniformly the case, however, as both the mare and cow 
occasionally show signs of estrum until late in the period 
of gestation. These females may accept the services of 
males for months after conception takes place. On the 

277 



2/8 BREEDING OK FARM ANIMALS 

other hand, among all classes of farm animals, there will 
be found an occasional shy breeder that persistently re- 
fuses the attention of the male. 

A second sign of pregnancy is the tendency of females 
to take on fat, which is often very marked during the early 
stages of gestation. Later the abdomen enlarges, due 
to the developing fetus, and the pregnant animal becomes 
very clumsy, and is often incapable of performing certain 
movements. 

A third sign of pregnancy is the development of the 
milk-secreting organs. In the case of young females with 
their first pregnancy this begins early in the period of 
gestation, although among older animals it is not so 
apparent until later in the period. The development of 
the mammae or milk organs is not a sure sign of preg- 
nancy, as in some animals the glands fail to enlarge, and 
after parturition fail to secrete milk. This is particu- 
larly true of old mares which have been bred for the first 
time. Further, the milk glands may become functional 
in non-pregnant females, as is frequently observed in the 
case of young heifers and mare mules. 

A fourth and positive sign of pregnancy is the move- 
ments of the living fetus. These occur in most, if not 
all farm animals, but are readily observed in the mare 
and cow, where the size and strength of the fetus are 
sufficient to bring about very vigorous movements. Such 
movements cannot be observed until rather late in the 
period of pregnancy. While there is no safe and reliable 
method for inducing the movements, they frequently can 
be noted while the mother is drinking, particularly in the 
morning. To make such observations it is not necessary 
to give ice cold water, as suggested by some persons ; 
in fact, much better results are obtained from water at 
medium temperature. Further, as stated in the discus- 
sion on abortion, disastrous results may follow the giving 
of ice cold water. 

Duration of gestation. — Among farm animals the 



Pregnancy and gestation 279 

period of gestation is exceedingly variable. The degree 
of variability is dependent upon the length of the gesta- 
tion period. In the rabbit, where the period is approx- 
imately 30 days, the variation is slight, rarely exceeding 
two days, while in the mare, with an average duration 
of approximately 340 days, the variability is increased to 
two or three months. 

In general, the period of gestation depends on the size 
of the animal, the larger the animal the longer the period. 
Thus the period in the lv^ 

mare is more than two 
and one-half times that 
of the sow. This, of 
course, does not apply 
to the individuals with- 
in a given class. The 
ponderous draft mare 
requires no longer time 
than the diminutive 
pony. The length of 
the period is somewhat 
dependent upon the 
state of development in ^"'- 92-percheron stall.on -...precat,on" 

which the young are born. Thus in the dog the period 
is slightly more than two months, while in sheep, which 
in many cases are no larger than dogs, the period of gesta- 
tion is more than twice as long, although at birth lambs 
are far more developed than puppies. Further, it is a 
popular opinion that male offspring require a longer 
period of gestation, although there is not sufficient evi- 
dence to warrant this opinion. 

The mare. — The period of gestation in the mare is 
popularly placed at 11 months, more accurately, perhaps, 
340 days, although, as stated, it may vary greatly. Tes- 
sier reports 582 cases among mares, with a range of 287 
to 419 days, which may be considered the extremes for 
normal gestation in the mare (pp. 323 to 326). 




2cSo 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



The cow. — The duration of gestation in the cow is 
usually placed at nine months, but more accurately, per- 
haps, 280 days, although it varies widely. Tessier re- 
ports 1,131 cases among cows, with a range of 240 to 
321 days, which may be considered the extremes for 
normal pregnancy in the cow (pp. 323 to 326). 

The ewe. — The period of gestation among sheep and 
goats is popularly considered to be five months, more 
accurately, perhaps, 150 days, although it is variable. 
Tessier reports 912 ewes, with a range of 146 to 161 days, 
which may be considered the extreme for normal gesta- 
tion in the ewe (pp. 323 to 326). 

The sow. — Among swine the duration of pregnancy is 
considered a trifle short of four months, probably about 
112 days, although the extremes vary from 109 to 125 
days in normal gestation (pp. 323 to 326). 

Other animals.^ — To show the general relation between 
the size of the animal and the duration of gestation 
the following tabulation is designed, giving the 
period of gestation for a number of animals of various 
sizes: 

Period of Gestation 



Animal 


Period 


Animal 


Period 


Elephant 


24 months 


Sow 


4 months 


Giraffe 


14 months 


Beaver 


4 months 


Buffalo 


12 months 


Lion 


3-4 months 


Ass 


12 months 


Dog 


2 months 


Mare 


11 months 


Fox and wolf 


2 months 


Cow 


9 months 


Cat 


50 days 


Bear 


6 months 


Rabbit 


30 days 


Sheep and goat 


5 months 


Squirrel and rat 


28 days 



Poultry. — The period of gestation in egg-laying animals 
is the same as the period of incubation. The following 
tabulation is arranged to show the period of incubation 
in domestic fowls : 



pregnancy and gestation 
Period of Incubation 



281 



Animal 


Period 


Animal 


Period 


Turkey 
Guinea 
Pea hen 
Ducks 


26 to 30 days 
25 to 26 days 
28 to 30 days 
25 to 32 days 


Geese 
Hens 
Pigeons 
Canary birds 


27 to 33 days 
19 to 24 days 
16 to 20 days 
13 to 14 days 



Small breeds hatch earlier than large ones. The aver- 
age for hens is approximately 21 days, although game 
bantams hatch at the end of 19 days, while some of the 
larger breeds require 24 days. Duck eggs hatch earlier 
under hens than under ducks, probably because of the 
higher temperature of the hen's body. 

Number of young at birth. — Among farm animals there 
is much variation in the number of young brought forth 
at a given birth. Domestic animals are grouped into 
three classes according to the number of fetuses 
ordinarily produced ; the uniparous animals which or- 
dinarily give birth to but a single young at a time, such 
as the mare and cow; the biparous or twin-bearing 
animals, such as the goat and some breeds of sheep ; 
and the muciparous animals, which usually give birth 
to a number of young at a time, such as the sow, dog and 
other carnivora. The following tabulation shows the 
approximate number of young brought forth at a given 
birth among the more important animals : 

Number of Young at Birth 



Animal 


Number 


Animal 


Number 


Elephant 




Sow 


4-14 


Giraffe 




Beaver 


4 


Buffalo 




Lion 


2 


Ass 




Dog 


4-8 


Mare 




Fox and wolf 


4-6 


Cow 




Cat 


3-6 


Bear 


2 


Rabbit 


4-8 


Sheep and goat 


1-2-3 


Squirrel and rat 


3-6 



282 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



Single-birthed animals occasionally bear twins. All 
multiple-birthed animals are exceedingly variable in the 
number of young produced at a time. 

Poultry. — The egg-laying animals are also exceedingly 
variable in the number of eggs produced in a season. 
Under proper care the hens of the meat type, such as 
Brahma, Cochin and Langshan, produce from 30 to 60 
eggs in a season ; those of the general purpose type, such 
as Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, Java, Orpington and 
Rhode Island Red, produce from 75 to 100; while those 
of the egg type, particularly the Leghorn, average 125 
to 150 for entire flocks, with the high individuals running 
up to 300 eggs in a season. Likewise, turkey hens vary 
widely in the number of eggs produced, but individuals 
average from 25 to 40 eggs in a given season. The fol- 
lowing tabulation shows the number of eggs in a brood 
under natural conditions such as when the hen "steals" 
her nest : 



Number of Eggs in Brood 



Animal 


Number 


Animal 


Number 


Turkey 
Hen 
Guinea 
Geese 


15-18 
15-18 
15-18 
15-18 


Duck 
Pea-hen 
Canary 
Pigeon 


9-12 

8-10 

2- 4 

2 



Care of pregnant animals. — In the attempt to favor 
pregnant animals we often subject them to very adverse 
conditions. Often pregnant animals are closely con- 
fined, fed the most nutritious of foods and denied exer- 
cise, particularly in winter, as we are afraid they may 
slip and injure themselves or their young. Under such 
conditions these animals take on fat rapidly, they be- 
come swollen and stiff and their flesh soft and flabby, 
all of which serve to increase the difficulties during ges- 
tation, but more especially at parturition time. 




PREGNANCY AND GESTATION 283 

Pregnant animals should be given much the same care 
as other animals. This is particularly true as regards 
exercise. Thus, in the case of the mare, moderate work 
is not only harmless, but of positive advantage. Of 
course, she should be protected from rough treatment, as 
in fact all animals should be at all times. She should not 
be roughly jostled by the pole of the vehicle; violent 
pulling should be carefully guarded against; as should 
also rapid trotting, galloping, jumping, and the like. 

Animals w^ell advanced in the period of pregnancy 
should not be shipped in railv^ay cars. The unsteady 
movements of the car 
jostles the animal about 
more or less violently. 
When at pasture preg- 
nant animals should l^e 

protected against all un- ' ^ ^^ 

due excitement, as chas- 
ing by dogs or other ani- 
mals. Mules and colts Fig. 93— Berkshire Boar "Handsome Lee" 

are especially meddle- 
some. It has been suggested that pregnant animals 
of different classes should not be allowed in the same 
field, but this applies only in case they are quarrel- 
some. Of course, swine should be excluded at the time 
other animals are parturating, as, being omnivorous, they 
may devour the young, and, in fact, if the dam is ex- 
hausted or injured, she too may succumb to the rapacity 
of the swine. 

The food of pregnant animals should be such as will 
stimulate growth and development rather than fat pro- 
duction. Thus foods rich in protein and ash, such as oats, 
bran, clover and alfalfa, are preferred to starchy foods, 
such as corn and timothy hay. By the use of proper 
foods the bowels should be kept in good condition and 
constipation avoided. The feeding of too stimulating a 
ration or the reverse, as well as the feeding of harmful 



284 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

materials, as ergot on rye, smut of corn or other grains, 
moldy hay, iced grasses, and the drinking of filthy, stag- 
nant or iced water should be avoided at all times. 

Signs of parturition. — Because of the uncertainty of the 
period of gestation, pregnant animals should be watched 
closely for a time previous to the expiration of the average 
period. The limitations given on pages 279 and 280 sug- 
gest a good time to begin observations. There are certain 
signs of the near approach of parturition that rarely fail. 

The most conspicuous symptom of the near approach 
of parturition is the increased functional activity of the 
milk glands. There is a tendency for these glands to 
become gradually enlarged, firm and resistant to the 
touch as the time for parturition approaches. At first 
they contain a watery secretion, which gradually be- 
comes more milk-like, and later assumes the character- 
istics of colostrum. Lastly, the teats fill out to the tips 
and the milk may escape from them in drops. Much 
reliance is placed on this symptom, as the young is 
usually born within 24 hours after wax forms at the teats. 
On the other hand, this is not a positive sign, as the milk 
may flow for days before the young is born. Occasion- 
ally, however, this sign fails, as under certain conditions 
the milk glands do not develop, at least noticeably, and 
even more rarely they are excited to functional activity 
without pregnancy. 

A very important symptom of approaching parturition 
is the relaxation of the muscles passing over the rump, 
causing a sinking of the croup. This is due to a soften- 
ing of the muscles, which favors the ease of bearing 
young. Another sign is the changes which take place 
in the vulva. The vulva lips become somewhat thick- 
ened and stand apart more loosely than ordinarily. In 
the cow a discharge of ropy mucus is noticeable. Later 
the animal becomes uneasy, ceases to eat, switches the 
tail, lies down, then rises again and may moan, indicating 
that labor has begun. 



PREGNANCY AND GESTATION 285 

Some animals become nervous and more or less excited. 
This is particularly true of ewes. It is not unusual to 
see her hunting anxiously about for her lamb before it 
has been born. Just before parturition the sow spends 
much of her time in collecting material for a nest. When 
at large in the field she makes a very cozy nest, and in 
confinement makes such a bed as the material at hand 
permits. 

Preparation for parturition. — Proper precaution should 
be taken to avoid injury to the young or to the mother 
from defective stabling or from the presence of other 
animals. When the weather will permit, the best place 
for an animal to give birth to young is in an open, grassy 
paddock, as there is no danger from infection or mechan- 
ical injury. This, of course, is impossible in winter and 
undesirable during the hot summer months when the 
flies are annoying. 

Parturating animals should be provided with a large, 
well-lighted and well-ventilated box stall, thoroughly 
clean and freshly bedded, from which all obstructions, 
such as mangers and feed boxes, have been removed. If 
convenient, a little air-slaked lime should be scattered 
about the stall before the bedding is put down. This 
disinfects the stall and aids in the prevention of infection, 
which causes a high mortality among new-born farm 
animals. Some breeders arrange a special box stall, by 
constructing a false wall, sloping it upward and outward 
at an angle of 45 degrees and joining the main wall at a 
height of 4 feet. This sloping wall prevents the mare 
and cow from injuring the protruding fetus. 

The lambing fold should be provided with a number 
of panels 3 feet high and 4 feet long, so that when two 
such panels are hinged together and placed in the corner 
of the barn they make a pen 4 feet square. When the 
ewe shows signs of lambing she should be placed in one 
of these pens, thus separating her from the flock and 
preventing the lamb from straying away, as it is very 



286 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

likely to do if not restrained or confined with Its dam. 

The piggery should be provided with a fender made of 
a scantling securely fastened, say 8 inches from the floor 
and the same distance from the walls. The young pigs 
soon learn to take advantage of the protection furnished 
by this device, thus avoiding much of the danger of being 
crushed by the mother when she lies down. 

Normal parturition. — As the labor pains come on, the 
neck of the uterus largely disappears and the os gradu- 
ally dilates. The water bag passes into the opening, 
portions of the fetus soon advance into the vagina, and 
definite labor pains quickly become established. The 
pain and suffering depend largely upon the class of 
animals, being severe in the mare and cow, but much 
less aggravating in the sow. The water bag aids ma- 
terially in the expulsion of the fetus. It brings equal 
pressure to bear in dilation of the passages, which not 




Fig. 94 — Normal Presentation of Young at Parturition — 

2 Os uteri, 3 Vagina, 4 Bladder, 5 Urethra, 6 Floor of pelvis, 7 The young or 

fetus M normal position before birth. (Made up from Pilz's Anatomical 

Manikin of the Horse) 



PREGNANCY AND GESTATION 287 

only favors dilation, but no doubt eases the pain. This 
dilation is also favored by the form of the fetus when 
normally presented. 

Among the larger farm animals, the vast majority 
of fetuses present the two front feet, followed by the 
nose. These parts form an elongated cone, which acts 
as a wedge in gradually dilating the passages. The con- 
ditions are essentially the same when the fetus presents 
the two hind feet, as the legs and thighs serve as a long 
wedge-like cone. In anterior presentation the head is 
usually the most difficult, and after it emerges from the 
vulva the other parts usually pass with comparative ease, 
although there may be marked resistance as the chest 
and shoulders enter the passage. In posterior presenta- 
tion the hips are usually the most difficult. 

The time required for normal parturition in farm 
animals is exceedingly variable. As a rule, it is pro- 
longed in animals with their first birth, as the organs 
have not previously been dilated. In the mare parturi- 
tion is rather prompt, but often exceedingly painful, 
causing sweating. In fact, rapid parturition is es- 
sential, as the fetal connections are weak and 
easily separated, which cuts off the nutritive supply, 
thus causing the death of the fetus in the case of pro- 
longed parturition. In this respect the cow has a de- 
cided advantage over the mare, as the fetal membranes 
are more strongly attached and not so likely to be dis- 
connected, and may therefore experience prolonged par- 
turition with practically no danger to the young. 

In the sow and other multiple-birthed animals, the 
young usually follow each other rather quickly. A sow 
may bear 10 or 12 pigs in less than an hour. On the 
other hand, parturition sometimes becomes extremely 
tedious and a sow may be a day or more in bearing a 
litter. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
AILMENTS OF THE DAM 

There are a few diseases that occasionally trouble 
animals during or immediately following parturition. 
The breeder should make a careful study of these, not 
only that he may be able to handle urgent cases, but in 
order that he may manage his pregnant animals so as 
to avoid such ailments in so far as it is possible. The 
suggestions herein given are intended to familiarize the 
breeder with the nature of the diseases that he may know 
when to call for the advice of the trained veterinarian. 

Difficult parturition. — There are a number of causes of 
difficult parturition among farm animals. It may be due 
to a very large fetus, a small passage in the dam, or to 
some malformation in either the fetus or the dam, as well 
as to wrong presentation. When an animal has been 
in intense labor for an hour without progress in deliver- 
ing the young, an examination should be made to deter- 
mine the cause of retarded birth. The chances of suc- 
cess are much greater when taken early, before the dam 
is exhausted from severe straining. If assistance is de- 
layed, the water bag may be ruptured, thus allowing the 
lubricating fluids to escape and the parts to become dry 
and swollen. 

The operator should be dressed in sleeveless clothing 
that will not be injured on being soiled. The arms should 
be rubbed with clean sweet oil, preferably carbolized 
oil, one part of carbolic acid to 30 parts of oil. This 
serves to protect both the animal and the operator from 
infection. The examination can be made much easier if the 
animal is turned with her head downhill, as the internal 
organs gravitate forward into the abdomen, thus making 
more room in which to manipulate the fetus. One of the 

288 



AILMENTS OF THE DAM 289 

most frequent abnormal positions is with the head and 
one foreleg presented but with the other foreleg doubled 
back. In this case, should the animal be lying down, 
turn her on the side opposite to that on which the limb 
is missing, so that there may be more room to arrange 
the fetus and to bring up the missing member. To avoid 
losing the parts already in position, double a piece of 
rope and loop it around the foreleg, and another around 
the head arranging the rope so as not to injure the young, 
if still alive ; then push the fetus back into the uterus, 
and bring forward the foreleg that is doubled back, thus 
securing a normal position. 




Fig. 95 — Large Yorkshire Sows 

No attempt should be made to arrange the fetus dur- 
ing labor pains. After one pain has ceased, then the part 
may be straightened out before another pain comes ont 
The operator must be patient and painstaking, remem- 
bering that the fetus will not come until in the proper 
position, and when so arranged it is likely to come fairly 
easy. If the passages have lost their natural lubricating 
liquid and become dry, lubricate the interior of the pas- 
sages and the surfaces of the fetus as far as can be reached 
with sweet oil. 



290 



BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 



111 assisting the delivery, draw only while the animal 
is in labor. The natural curvature of both the fetus and 
the passages are followed and the extraction of the fetus 
favored by drawing downward toward the hocks as well 
as backwards. The amount of force that one person can 
exert is usually sufficient. Avoid injuring the parts, as 
inflammation and blood poisoning may follow. 

Difficult parturition is much more troublesome in the 
mare than in the cow, ewe or sow. The great length 
of the limbs and neck of the foal renders it extremely dif- 
ficult to secure and bring up a missing member which 
has been turned back. The fetal membranes of the foal 
are loosely attached to the uterus. The foal becomes 
separated from its mother at an early stage and rarely 
survives four hours after the beginning of labor pains. 

Wrong presentations. — In addition to normal presenta- 
tion, the fetus may appear in a number of positions, some 
of them requiring ingenuity and skill to handle, together 

Wrong Presentations of Fetuses* 

I Incompletely extended 
Crossed over neck 
Bent back at the knee 
Bent back from the shoulder 



Anterior presentations 



Head 



Posterior presentations 



Body presentations 



Hind legs . . 



Hind legs 



Bent downward on the neck 
Turned back beneath the breast 

Turned to one side 
[ Turned upward and backward 

Hind feet turned outward 

Hind feet resting on pelvis 

Transverse Back of fetus to side of pelvis 

Inverted Back of fetus to floor of pelvis 

Bent on itself at the hock 

Bent at the hip 

Transverse Back of fetus to side oi pelvis 

Inverted Back of fetus to floor of pelvis 

With back and loins presented 

With breast and abdomen presented 

* "Diseases of the Horse," p. 176. Special Report, Bureau of Animal Industry, 
Department of Agriculture. 



AILMENTS OF THE DAM 29I 

with careful study of conditions. When the fetus can- 
not be secured in any other manner, it is necessary to 
perform embryotomy, which consists of dismembering 
the fetus and removing it part at a time. This calls for 
the services of a trained veterinarian. The tabulation on 
page 290 gives the more important positions in which 
wrong presentations may occur. 

Eversion of the uterus. — This ailment is frequently 
observed among cows, and is commonly called "casting 
the withers." It often follows difficult parturition, the 
animal continuing to strain until the uterus is forced out 
and hangs from the vulva. The displaced uterus must be 
kept scrupulously clean, and carefully sponged with cold 
water containing a weak solution of carbolic acid. The 
cold is useful in driving out the blood and reducing the 
bulk. With the closed list gradually reinvert the uterus 
into place. The animal will strain while this is being 
done, but the uterus must be firmly held in place until 
the straining is over. A small rope tied tightly around 
the body just back of the front legs and another just 
forward of the hind legs will usually allay the straining. 
The hindquarters should be elevated by raising the rear 
of the stall some 4 or 5 inches. 

The holding of the uterus in place is the next point. 
Some persons advise taking about four stitches through 
the lips of the vulva, which are left in for 24 to 36 hours, 
or until all straining is stopped. Perhaps the safest 
method is by the use of a rope truss. To make this truss 
use a long i-inch rope. Double this rope at its middle 
and place over the neck of the animal ; bring the ends 
one on either side of the neck, down between the fore- 
legs ; then pass back between the hind legs and up to 
the vulva, tying as necessary, to secure firmly ; and 
then carry the ropes forward along the back and tie into 
the middle of the rope at the top of the neck. 

Retained afterbirth. — Among most farm animals, with 
the exception of the cow, the afterbirth or placenta comes 



292 BREEDING OF. FARM ANIMALS 

away when the young animal is born. In the cow, how- 
ever, it frequently remains attached to the walls of the 
uterus. This is particularly true after an abortion. 
When the afterbirth is not removed it decomposes and 
is discharged as a yellow or reddish fluid, having a dis- 
agreeable odor. This discharge is most apparent when 
the animal endeavors to pass urine. The rear parts be- 
come soiled by this discharge, which often contains 
lumps of decomposing material. The cow presents an 
unthrifty appearance, loses flesh, and the milk flow is 
rapidly diminished. 

If possible the afterbirth should be removed within 24 
or 36 hours after parturition. To do this, a simple 

method, which is often use- 
ful, is to hang a small 
weight, not to exceed one 
or two pounds, to the hang- 
ing portion of the afterbirth 
and allow this by its dan- 
gling motion as the cow 
moves along to pull the 
membranes from their at- 
tachments and to stimulate 
the uterus to expulsive 

Fig. 96— Belgian Stallion "Polo Nord" Contractions. 

If this is ineffective and 
the afterbirth remains, an attempt should be made to remove 
the membranes by hand. This should be done within 24 
hours after calving. The operator should dress and grease 
the arms as suggested in difficult parturition. With extreme 
care the greased arm is introduced and passed on until the 
places of attachment are reached. The attachments will 
be found to resemble mushroom-shaped bodies. They 
should be detached one by one, by passing the thumb 
between the membrane and the uterus. Should the mem- 
branes adhere to the heads of these bodies, under no cir- 
cumstances tear the membranes loose, as further compli- 




AILMENTS OF THE DAM 293 

cations are likely to follow such practice. In removing 
the placenta extreme care should be taken not to rup- 
ture the uterus. After the membrane has been removed 
disinfect the passages with a weak solution of carbolic 
acid. 

Inflammation of the vagina and uterus. — Simple in- 
flammation of these organs may be the result of bruises, 
lacerations or other injuries sustained at the time of 
parturition. It will be shown by swelling of the lips of 
the vulva, which, together with their lining membrane, 
become of a dark red hue and the discharge increases 
and becomes whitish or purulent, and it may be fetid. Slight 
cases recover spontaneously or under the injections of 
mild astringents, as a very weak solution of carbolic 
acid, say one teaspoonful of the acid to a quart of water. 

On the other hand, such inflammations, particularly 
of the uterus, may be of a very serious nature. The gen- 
eral poisoning may extend, so that the inflammation 
affects the lining membrane of the entire abdominal 
cavity. Such diseases are known as metritis, and are 
entirely too complicated for the breeder, calling for the 
services of the trained veterinarian. 

Milk fever. — This disease is also known as parturition 
apoplexy and parturition fever, though there is usually 
but very little fever and the temperature is often below 
normal. This is primarily a dairy cow disease. The 
best and heaviest milkers are most subject to attack. 
The disease is more likely to occur when birth has been 
easy and quick. It usually comes on within two days 
after calving. The first symptom is uneasiness, the cow 
is dull, the appetite gone, and the milk secretions lessened 
or stopped. The eyes possess a vacant stare, she gradu- 
ally loses control of the hind parts and finally, unable to 
stand, she falls or lies down. At first she lies with head 
turned around and nose resting on the flank, but later 
she may stretch out full on her side. Unconsciousness 
soon follows, the eyes become glazed, with pupils widely 



294 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

dilated, and often there is a slight moan with the breath- 
ing. Relief must follow quickly or the cow will soon 
expire. 

Formerly milk fever was considered extremely serious, 
but with the air treatment it is seldom fatal. This con- 
sists simply of injecting air into the udder and carefully 
kneading the udder at the same time. There are milk 
fever outfits on the market with which to force the air 
into the udder, but if one of these is not near at hand, 
a very convenient apparatus can be made from a common 
bicycle air pump and a milk tube. Secure the milk tube 
to the pump, insert the tube into the teat, and as the air 
is forced in knead the udder well. Fill each quarter, and 
in two or three hours milk the air out, rest a few minutes, 
and pump up again. Make the cow as comfortable as 
possible and keep her propped up on her brisket, with the 
head elevated to avoid bloating. 

While little is known as to the cause of milk fever, 
the fact that the air-distended udder gives relief so 
quickly is significant. The disease seems to be due to 
absence of pressure in the udder ; therefore, to avoid the 
disease, never milk the high-producing cow dry for some 
days after calving. 

Garget. — This is a congestion of the udder often ob- 
served in heavy milkers, before and just after calving. 
The milk glands are enlarged, hot and tense and the ail- 
ment is commonly referred to as caked udder. This 
congestion usually disappears in two or three days after 
the secretion of milk has been fully established. This 
is greatly favored by allowing the calf to run with its dam 
for a few days, otherwise the congestion must be relieved 
by drawing the milk frequently by hand. Gently but 
thoroughly rub the udder. 

If the congestion remains, bathe the udder with hot 
water 15 minutes at a time. After rubbing the udder 
dry, apply an ointment made by dissolving two table- 
spoonfuls of gum camphor in a teacupful of melted fresh 



AILMENTS OF THE DAM 



295 



lard. This may be improved by the addition of one ounce 
of the fluid extract of belladonna. The udder should be 
bathed three times daily and the ointment well rubbed 
in after each bath. If the udder is large and pendulous, 
support should be given by the use of a wide piece of 
cloth with holes cut for the teats, and this held in place 
by arranging a band over the back. 




Fig. 97 — Group of Swiss Toggenburg Does 



Cow pox. — This is a contagious inflammation of the 
udder, which is usually spread from one cow to another 
by the hands of the milker. The yield of milk is dimin- 
ished, the teats become very tender and in two or three 
days there appear little pealike nodules on the udder. 
At first these pocks contain yellow pus, which later dries 
into a yellowish scab. This finally falls, leaving a dis- 
tinct pit in the skin. 

The treatment is to heal the sores and to check the 
propagation of the germ. This can be done by bathing 
the udder and teats three times daily with a solution of 
half an ounce of hyposulphite of soda in a pint of water. 



296 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

As milking is the chief cause of the persistence of the 
disease, this should be done as gently as possible. 

Mammitis. — This is an inflammation of the udder. It 
may be due to congestion, to exposure to cold or wet, 
to injuries of the udder caused by blows or kicks, to 
insufficient stripping of the udder, and the like. The 
first observed signs of illness are the swelling, heat, and 
tenderness of the udder. The inflammation may become 
so tense as to cause the animal to straddle with the hind 
legs. When she lies down it is on the unaffected side. 
The milk flow is suppressed and often replaced by a 
watery fluid colored with blood. In very bad cases the 
cow may lose the inflamed quarter. 

The treatment varies according to the condition of the 
animal. If there is only slight inflammation, rub the 
udder well with camphorated ointment, or a weak iodine 
ointment. Milk four to six times daily and rub the udder 
thoroughly each time. The milking must be done with 
care and gentleness, squeezing the teat instead of pulling 
and stripping. In case the cow is seen to be shivering, 
every effort should be made to warm her, by giving warm 
water in the form of a drench, by warm injections, and 
by the applications of blankets wrung out of warm water, 
to the loins. After an hour's sweat, rub dry and cover 
with a dry blanket. 

In case the fever has set in and the inflammation is 
much more advanced, give a laxative consisting of one 
to two pounds of epsom salts to which one ounce of 
ginger has been added. After the purging has ceased 
this may be followed by daily doses of one ounce of salt- 
peter. The inflamed quarter should be bathed in warm 
warter. To do this place a bucket of warm water be- 
neath the udder from which a blanket may be raised and 
held against the udder, dipping it anew whenever the 
heat is lost. After this has been continued for an hour, 
rub the udder dry, then cover with a coating of soap. 

Altered milk secretion.- — After giving birth, if there is 



AILMENTS OF THE DAM 297 

a scant secretion of milk, or if the milk is thin and ap- 
parently lacking in fat content, the dam should be fed 
milk-producing foods, such as bran mashes and alfalfa or 
clover hay, as these tend to increase the milk flow, im- 
prove the quality of the milk up to normal, and have a 
laxative effect upon the bowels. However, if the udder 
is swollen and inflamed, such foods should not be given 
until the inflammation disappears. 

Soon after parturition bloody milk is frequently ob- 
served. This is often due to a rupture of some of the 
small blood vessels near the milk cells, or it may be due 
to an injury or to a diseased condition of the milk glands. 
The presence of germs in the udder frequently causes blue or 
bitter as well as slippery and putrid milk. The treat- 
ment for such ailments depends upon the cause. When 
due to a germ it is often necessary to inject a disinfectant 
into the udder. For this purpose, a solution of boracic 
acid is used with good results. In simple cases bathing 
the udder in hot water and frequently milking the glands 
clean gives good results. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
AILMENTS OF THE NEW-BORN 

The mortality among new-born animals is very high. 
It has been estimated that one-fourth of all farm animals 
born into the world succumb before they are one month 
of age. Possibly this estimate is too high in the case of 
foals and lambs, although it is not too great in pigs, or 
in the case of calves, if the abortions that take place well 
along in pregnancy be included in the estimate. 

In the main, these young animals succumb to diseases 
that easily can be avoided. The most troublesome of 
these diseases are due to infection during or immediately 
after birth. All such troublesome diseases and attendant 
losses can be avoided if proper sanitation be provided. 

Asphyxia. — In retarded parturition, asphyxia is rather 
common. This is especiall}^ true in the case of the foal, 
where the fetal connection with the uterus is very slight. 
The placenta may become partially or entirely detached 
before the fetus is expelled, thus smothering the foal. 
The navel cord may become tightly compressed between 
the fetus and the pelvis of the dam in such a manner as 
to interrupt the circulation. Likewise, the cord may be- 
come entangled about one of the limbs or the head of 
the fetus, and the circulation thus be interrupted, with 
asphyxia as a result. Sometimes the fetal membranes 
about the head and nostrils fail to rupture, thus causing 
partial asphyxia. 

In partial asphyxia respiration may be favored by al- 
ternately compressing and relaxing the chest with the 
hands, by vigorously stroking the the chest, and by ex- 
tending the front legs alternately forward and backward. 
Suspending animals by the hind legs tends to stimulate 
respiration and permits the free escape of fluids that may 

298 



AILMENTS OF THE NEW-BORN 299 

have lodged in the lungs. A sharp blow upon the nose 
often tends to induce respiration, as does the dashing of 
cold water upon the skin of the animal. 

Constipation. — During the last few days of fetal life 
there collects in the alimentary tract of the young an 
excretory debris known as meconium. This material 
varies in color and consistency, but is usually of a yellow- 
ish or greenish hue and appears as a pasty mass, in which 
condition it is usually promptly expelled without dif- 
ficulty. In the foal, however, this material is frequently 
hard and dry, in which condition it is often retained, 
and leads to further complications, not infrequently caus- 
ing the death of the young animal. This is especially 
true of foals whose dams have been confined to the stable, 
denied exercise, and fed upon dry food during the latter 
part of pregnancy. 

If the alimentary tract has not been cleaned of this 
meconium within a few hours after birth and the young- 
ster presents the symptoms of illness, standing with the 
front legs extending forward 
and the hind legs backward, 
with back depressed, occasion- 
ally looking toward the flank 
and straining, as if to expel the 
material, something must be 
done to stimulate the bowels to 
action. The colostrum or first fig. 98-Chester white boar 
milk of the dam is a natural 

purgative and favors the early passage of the material. The 
bowels of the foal can usually be stimulated to action by 
giving internally two ounces of castor oil or four ounces 
of olive oil, and by an injection of warm water into the 
bowels. The oil must be given carefully, to avoid 
strangling the foal. The water used in the injection 
should have added to it a little glycerine, although some 
persons prefer the addition of a very little common salt. 
Inject gently into the rectum with a common hard rub- 




300 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

ber syringe, taking care not to i"upture the tender mem- 
brane. This will soften the meconium, lubricate the 
passage and stimulate the bowels to action. 

Navel infection. — This is another disease common to 
young foals. It is due to filth germs that gain access 
to the body of the foal by way of the open umbilical vein 
of the navel at birth. Soon after these germs enter the 
navel, they set up irritation and inflammation. The 
navel becomes enlarged, pus forms and is absorbed into 
the general circulation. Abscesses form in all parts of 
the body, notably in the joints of the legs and at the 
throat and poll. It is comparatively rare that a foal is 
saved after the disease reaches the pus-forming stage. 

The breeder should understand that this disease is due 
to a simple infection, and that proper hygienic measures 
will prevent it. The box stall in which the mare foals 
should be scrupulously clean, well lighted and well ven- 
tilated. It should be well bedded with clean, fresh ma- 
terial, preferably straw or shavings. A little lime scat- 
tered about the floor before the bedding is put down 
serves to disinfect and sweeten the stall. Immediately 
after the foal is delivered the navel should be disinfected 
with a powder consisting of equal parts of dry or des- 
iccated alum, gum camphor and starch, finely powdered 
and thoroughly mixed. The navel cord should neither 
be cut nor tied. If the cord is powdered at intervals of 
half an hour it will mummify within three hours and all 
danger from infection will be eliminated. 

Diarrhea. — This disease is common among suckling 
animals. The causes of simple diarrhea are many and 
varied, although overfeeding as well as too rapid feed- 
ing on the part of the young are the most common. The 
surroundings of the new-born often bring on the disease. 
Closely crowded, filthy and four-smelling quarters are 
likely to produce an attack. Young animals kept in the 
open air where they can obtain sufiicient exercise, pure 
air and sunlight are seldom troubled with diarrhea. 



AILMENTS OF THE NEW-BORN 3OI 

The treatment is to remove the cause, if possible. If 
the disease is due to an oversupply of milk, the dam 
should be milked in part by hand, remembering that the 
last milk is the richer in fat, which is the element causing 
the disturbance. The dam's ration should be reduced 
first by one-third, and then by one-half should the large 
milk flow continue. Avoid all conditions likely to cause 
such disorders. If the dam is properly fed, exer- 
cised and managed, there is very little danger. In treat- 
ing the young the nature of the disease must be borne in 
mind, that it is caused by an irritant in the digestive tract, 
which must be removed before a cure can be effected. 
The best policy in such disorders is to expel the irritant 
with a laxative, such as castor oil or linseed oil. 

Infectious diarrhea. — This is a serious dysentery com- 
mon to calves and is often known as white scours. In- 
fectious diarrhea usually appears during the first or 
second day after birth. It may appear immediately after 
parturition, and in some instances seemingly exists at the 
time the young animal is born, and it may perish from 
the disease without having sucked the dam. The dis- 
ease is highly contagious, attacking all calves dropped 
in the same stable. It is caused by a germ, which prob- 
ably gains admittance to the alimentary tract by way of 
the nostrils and mouth and through the navel wound. 
Infectious diarrhea is highly fatal and runs a very acute 
course. 

The symptom is a foul-smelling liquid evacuation, 
which, at first, is of a yellowish hue, but later changes 
to a grayish color. At first the liquid is expelled with con- 
siderable force, but later the evacuation takes place in- 
voluntarily. Sometimes the disease is accompanied by 
stretching and at other times there are convulsions. 

As the disease is highly fatal, chief attention must be 
given to preventive measures. Before parturition the 
dam should be placed in a thoroughly disinfected, com- 
fortable box stall. Before she is placed in the stall her 



302 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

posterior parts and udder should be washed with a warm 
antiseptic, as a two per cent solution of carbolic acid. 
As soon as the calf is born the navel should be dusted 
with an antiseptic powder, similar to that of the foal, as 
suggested in navel infection. The calf should be re- 
moved at once to quarters free from previous infection. 
In drawing the milk and in feeding the calf, every precau- 
tion must be taken to avoid infection. The milker should 
carefully disinfect his hands and the udder. The milk 
should be drawn and fed in sterile vessels. Likewise, 
care should be taken that the infection be not carried to 
the young by other animals, in the bedding or food, or 
by the caretaker. The stable in which the disease has 
existed should be thoroughly disinfected with a corrosive 
sublimate solution. 

Sore mouth. — Lambs and pigs are often troubled with 
contagious sore mouth, which may also affect the teats 
of their dams. Sores and later scabs form along the 
edges of the mouth and on the teats of the dam. This 
prevents proper nursing and interferes with the thrift 
of the young. In the case of lambs the treatment is to 
rub off the scabs and wash the parts in undiluted sheep 
dip. In the case of pigs prepare a solution of perman- 
ganate of potash, using one and one-half ounces of the 
crystals dissolved in one gallon of warm water. Dip 
the pig headforemost into this solution and hold there 
a second. This should be repeated for a few days. This 
disease can be prevented by providing clean comfortable 
quarters for the youngsters. 

Frequently young pigs are troubled with long, sharp 
teeth. These lacerate the teats of the dam and she will 
not let the youngster nurse, which interferes with their 
thrift. The treatment is to cut the sharp points from 
the teeth with a pair of nippers. 

Sore eyes. — Like sore mouth, this is a contagious dis- 
ease common to lambs. Though it interferes seriously 
with the thrift of the lambs, it is very easily cured. Sheep 




AILMENTS OF THE NEW-BORN 303 

dip diluted with 40 parts water used as a wash will work 
a rapid cure. It is well to see that a little of the diluted 
dip gets into the eyes. This may start the tears, but it 
has the desired effect. 

Chilled lamb. — Occasionally new-born lambs get sep- 
arated from their dams and become chilled. This is 
likely to prove fatal unless they are very thoroughly 
warmed. A hot bath is the best thing for a chilled lamb. 
This can conveniently be ac- 
complished by immersing the 
lamb in water as hot as one can 
bear the hand. Keep the water 
hot by adding more to it, taking 
care not to scald the lamb. 
When warmed, wipe thor- 
oughly dry with flannel cloth 

and restore to the dam. A few f,g. 99-hampshire ram 
drops of brandy in warm water 

is good for a chilled lamb. The lamb should be watched 
to be sure that it nurses the dam. 

Thumps. — This is a digestive trouble common to young 
pigs, and is due to overfeeding or lack of exercise. The 
treatment is to compel the pigs to take exercise, and pos- 
sibly reduce the sow's milk-producing food until the pigs 
are older. Young pigs may be encouraged to take exer- 
cise by arranging a panel, provided with a trap door, 
across one corner of the pen, thus providing a small tri- 
angular pen. On the floor of this small pen scatter a 
little meal, or provide a trough with a little sweet milk. 
When the young pigs enter the triangular pen to eat the 
food thus provided, close the trap door, separating them 
from their dam. In this manner they may be separated 
from the dam for three or four hours in the morning and 
a like period in the evening. When thus separated they will 
take sufficient exercise to keep. them in thrifty condition. 

Umbilical hernia. — This is a disease in which the umbilic 
ring, through which the navel cord passes, fails to close 



304 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

during the development of the fetus. It is rather com- 
mon in foals and pigs, but may occur among other farm 
animals. The disease is congenital, though it may not 
be noticed at the time of birth. The size of the tumor 
as well as the hernial ring varies greatly. In the pig it 
ranges from one-half to 2 inches in diameter, while with 
the foal it ranges from i to 6 inches. The causes which 
operate to prevent the closing of the umbilic ring during 
fetal development are complicated and the defect is con- 
sidered hereditary. 

Since umbilical hernia usually disappears, at least when 
not too large, an opportunity should be given for a spon- 
taneous recovery. This is especially true of foals. When 
the hernial ring is large, it may be necessary to use some 
means for overcoming the defect, except in the case of 
animals intended for early slaughter. Before undertak- 
ing treatment, however, it is desirable that the young 
animal shall have acquired some age and considerable 
vigor. 

There are many methods of treatment to overcome 
umbilical hernia, such as the application of a bandage or 
truss about the body in such a manner as to press the 
contents of the tumor up within the abdomen ; the 

application of a mineral acid, 
thus causing an intense local 
inflammation with much swell- 
ing, which induces closure of 
the hernial ring, the application 
of clamps similar to those used in 
castration; and the application of 
Fig. 100— duroc jtRSEY Boar sutures ill sucli a manner as to 
encourage closing of the hernial 
ring. The use of each method calls for the skill of a 
trained veterinarian. 

Scrotal hernia.^ — This is a disease similar to umbilical 
hernia, in which the inguinal ring, through which the 
testicle cords pass, fails to close during the development 




AILMENTS OF THE NEW-BORN 305 

of the fetus. It is rather common among foals and pigs. 
Scrotal or inguinal hernia is primarily a defect of males, 
although very rarely it exists among females. It is fre- 
quently observed among draft bred foals, where it is 
usually of a temporary character and later disappears. 
In some instances, however, the inguinal ring is exces- 
sively large, so that portions of the viscera protrude 
through it, and in all such cases some means must be 
employed for overcoming the defect, animals intended 
for early slaughter excepted. As in umbilical hernia, treat- 
ment calls for the skill of the trained veterinarian. 

Castration of males. — Young males not needed for 
breeding purposes should be castrated early in life, as 
there is less danger from complications, and the opera- 
tion can be accomplished with ease. At this age the 
organs are not mature and the shock to the young animals 
is much less than if the operation be delayed. Further, 
if left entire too long, the animal tends to become 
"staggy" in appearance and will not make as good a 
feeder as when castration is accomplished at an early 
age. Thus the colt should be castrated before one year 
of age, the calf at three or four months, the pig at three 
or four weeks, and the lamb at lo days to two weeks 
of age. 

The fact that the male develops stronger features than 
the female is often taken advantage of by horse breeders, 
and colts that are rather undeveloped, especially about 
the head and neck, as well as those that are rather timid 
in nature, are often left entire six months longer in order 
that these parts may improve. However, the colt should 
not be left entire too long, as he may develop vicious 
habits. 



CHAPTER XXIX 
DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 

Possibly no feature connected with animal breeding is 
of greater importance than the proper development of 
young stock. While variation is the basis of improve- 
ment and selection the key to the situation, yet intelli- 
gent selection can be exercised only in case the animals 
are properly developed. It is as an aid to selection, 
therefore, that development is of greatest importance. 
Selection is based in large part on the individuality, and 
unless the animal has been properly developed estimates 
of merit will be unreliable. Some inferior animals 
will be preserved and some superior ones discarded. In- 
telligent selection, therefore, is possible only when the 
animal has had a chance to develop those possibilities 
with which he has been endowed. 

There are a number of factors entering into the de- 
velopment of young animals, chief of which are the con- 
dition of the parents, proper feeding, sufficient training 
and judicious management. 

Condition of parents.^ — A lack of proper nutrition on 
the part of the dam impairs and restricts the development 
of the fetus. The nourishment of the offspring during 
its fetal life has just as strong an influence upon its final 
development as that furnished after it enters upon a sep- 
arate existence. While careful feeding after birth may 
compensate, in part at least, for such impaired develop- 
ment, it never can fully atone for the curtailment suf- 
fered at the time the fetus was being formed. Further, 
the dam that is not well nourished during pregnancy 
usually fails to give a plentiful supply of milk, which also 
operates to retard development. 

To supply the nutrients for the growth of the fetus 

306 




DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 30/ 

through the food of the dam calls for a ration rich in 
protein and mineral matter, as the increase consists 
mainly of bone, muscle and body tissue. Fat-producing 
foods do not supply the materials required by the grow- 
ing young, and should be 
avoided in making up the 
ration for the pregnant 
female. Such foods may 
lead to serious complica- 
tions during and imme- 
diately following parturi- 
tion. The proper nutrients 
would be contained in a 
ration consisting of oats 
and bran for the concen- '*-- 

trates, and clover and al- 
falfa for the forage. This fig. ioi~Clydesdale stallion 
may be improved by the 

addition of a succulent food, such as pasture grass in sea- 
son, carrots for horses and roots and silage in the case of 
cows and ewes. 

Among the smaller farm animals, such as swine and 
sheep, the relative size of the dam is a controlling factor 
in determining the birth weight of the young. In the 
main, large mothers produce large offspring. This is 
very significant, in view of the fact that lambs and pigs 
possessing a heavy birth weight develop much more 
rapidly than those of light birth weight. 

Feeding while young. — Growth and development are 
due to cell division. This cell division is exceedingly 
rapid during fetal development and immediately follow- 
ing birth, but gradually decreases as the animal attains 
maturity. The grozving age, therefore, is the age of 
infancy. This is a significant fact, which the breeder 
who would secure maximum development must use to 
his advantage. Every means should be employed to en- 
courage and promote growth and development while the 



308 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

animal is young. Often the right kind of food is restricted, 
and before it is reahzed the period in which growth is pos- 
sible has passed. In such cases a knowledge of the 
animal's capabilities is impossible, as no attempt was 
made to develop them. 

At a very early age animals should be encouraged to take 
food in addition to that furnished by the dam. They will 
eat only a very little food at first, but the object is to get 
them accustomed to this supplementary food. As young 
animals grow they will take the food in increasing quan- 
tities. This supplementary feeding has the added ad- 
vantage that it favors weaning, and the animals will 
adapt themselves to the changed conditions without loss, 
providing increasing amounts of food are given. 

To supply the nutrients needed by the young animal in 
securing maximum growth and development calls for a 
ration rich in protein and mineral matter similar to that 
suggested for the pregnant dam. A grain ration consist- 
ing of equal parts by weight of wheat bran, ground oats 
and corn meal, to which lo per cent of linseed oil meal has 
been added, gives very good results with all classes of 




Fig. 102 — Poland-China Barrows. Grand Champion Pen 



DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 



309 



young animals. Since the increase consists mainly of 
bone and muscle with but little fat, those foods favoring 
fat formation should be used very sparingly. 

Relative development. — In general the v^eight of the 
fetus or fetuses of farm animals is approximately one- 
tenth the weight of the dam. This relative propor- 
tion seems to run fairly uniform irrespective of the 
number of fetuses produced at a single parturition. Thus, 
in the case of the sow, even though she gives birth to 10 
or 12 pigs at a time, their collective birth weight seldom 
exceeds one-tenth that of the dam. This means that the 
individuals must be very small, and that development 
must be exceedingly rapid after birth. No class of farm 
animals even approximates the pig in rapidity of de- 
velopment. Not infrequently pigs increase their birth 
weight 150 fold in 9 or 10 months. This is a 
significant observation in the economic production of 
meat. 

That the age of infancy is the age of growth is well 
illustrated in the tabulation on this page which shows the 

Development of Farm Animals 



Horses 


Cattle 


Sheep 


Swine 


Age 




Gain 


Per 




Gain 


Per 




Gain 


Per 




Gain 


Per 




Weight 


per 


cent. 


Weight 


per 


cent. 


Weight 


per 


cent 


Weight 


per 


cent 


Mo. 




mo. 


gam 




mo. 


gam 




mo. 


gam 




mo. 


gam 


Birth 


125 






105 






9 






21 






1 


255 


130 


104 


200 


95 


90 


24 


15 


166 


12 


9h 


380 


2 


350 


95 


37 


275 


75 


37 


40 


16 


66 


26 


14 


116 


3 


435 


85 


23 


340 


65 


24 


52 


12 


30 


48 


22 


84 


4 


515 


80 


18 


400 


60 


18 


62 


10 


19 


78 


30 


62 


5 


590 


75 


14 


455 


55 


14 


68 


6 


10 


122 


44 


56 


6 


655 


65 


11 


510 


55 


12 


73 


5 


7 


170 


48 


39 


7 


715 


60 


9 


570 


60 


11 


78 


5 


7 


222 


52 


30 


8 


760 


45 


6 


625 


55 


9 


84 


6 


7 


264 


42 


18 


9 


810 


SO 


6 


670 


50 


9 


92 


8 


9 


304 


40 


15 


10 


850 


40 


5 


725 


55 


8 


100 


8 


8 








11 


890 


40 


5 


770 


45 


6 


107 


7 


7 








12 


925 


35 


4 


820 


50 


6 


114 


7 


7 








24 


1,310 


32 


3 


1,204 


32 


4 


140 


2 


2 








36 


1,660 


29 


2 


1,504 


25 


2 















310 BREEDING OF FARAf ANIMALS 

average monthly weight, gain and per cent gain from 
birth to maturity for a representative lot of each class 
of farm animals. 

Note the very rapid growth during the first month in 
each case, but more especially in the case of swine. This 
is very significant, for if the individual is neglected at 
this time its possibilities will remain forever unknown. 
At six months of age sheep and swine have attained 
approximately one-half of the normal mature weight. 
At one year of age horses and cattle that have been well 
managed will have attained about one-half of their ma- 
ture weight. Sheep usually reach maturity at less than 
two years of age, while horses and cattle continue to 
develop until approximately five years of age. 

Developing the young horse. — The methods employed 
by professional horse trainers in developing trotters and 

high-acting coach horses 
indicate the advantage 
to be gained by suitable 
training while the anim^als 
are young. From birth 
the foals are fed regularly 
up to the limit of their 
appetite in order to keep 
them strong. If properly 
groomed and exercised, 
it is not possible to get a 
^ .„o n ^ «,, » foal too fat. To facilitate 

Fig. 103 — Percheron Colt Merlin 

1600 pounds at 2 years of age ^arly training a Small 

track, similar to a race 
track, is provided. On this track the foals are 
exercised as soon in life as they can handle themselves 
to advantage. At first the youngsters run free and 
are controlled by attendants provided with whips, to 
which are attached long lashes; later they are led and 
finally driven with the single line. This exercise is con- 
tinued daily from colthood until old enough to put in 




DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 3II 

harness, with the exception of two or three days each 
month, when the youngsters are turned to a paddock 
where they can have perfect freedom, in order to break 
the monotony of the daily exercise and to freshen them. 
They are then placed in harness and the daily training 
continued. Horsemen feel that such continuous train- 
ing is necessary to develop maximum speed, style and 
action. 

The same principle holds true in the development of 
draft foals. To encourage growth they should be fed 
liberally on nutritious foods from birth to maturity, and 
to promote the development of quality they should be 
regularly exercised and thoroughly groomed. The 
breeder who wishes to secure maximum growth and 
highest quality should remember that it is scarcely pos- 
sible to overfeed colts, providing, of course, that judicious 
management accompanies such feeding. 

Developing the heifer. — The young heifer that is to re- 
main in the dairy herd should be given extra care from 
birth, in order that she be well grown by the time she 
is sexually mature. To develop a high-producing cow 
it is important that she be bred at an early age, and this 
can be done to advantage only in case she is well grown. 
The claim is made by some persons that the demands 
made on the young heifer by the growing fetus, together 
with her own growth, are too severe, and that she is 
likely to be stunt£d. On the other hand, experience in- 
dicates that the constant recurring periods of estrum 
checks growth and that the condition of pregnancy has 
a stimulating effect. The assimilation seems to be im- 
proved, and if the heifer be supplied with an abundance 
of nutritious food she will make a greater growth during- 
pregnancy than otherwise. 

The breeding of a well-grown heifer at 15 months of 
age has much to commend it. In the first place, unbred 
heifers are in estrum two or three days every three weeks, 
and it is at such times that the reproductive organs arc 



312 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

likely to become infected with the germ of contagious 
abortion, which may cause sterility, or, in case the heifer 
conceives, it may produce abortion. Thus, the animal 
bred early in life is likely to escape this infection and 
prove a regular breeder. In the second place, it is pos- 
sible to develop the milk-secreting organs of a heifer 
much more perfectly than of an older animal. 

The secreting of milk is a kind of habit, and the earlier 
in life the young heifer becomes accustomed to it the 
better producer she will make. Once giving milk, she 
should be kept at it as long as possible. The cow that 
dries off after secreting milk a few months is unprofit- 
able. The heifer should not be bred a second time until 
rather late, as the effect of again becoming pregnant 
has a tendency to decrease the flow of milk. During 
this first lactation the object is to keep her in milk as long 
as possible, in order to develop a persistent milker, rather 
than to encourage a high production for a short time and 
then dry her off, as is the usual practice. 

Developing meat-producing animals, — This calls for 
special consideration because of the seemingly conflict- 
ing factors involved. In the development of meat-pro- 
ducing animals early maturity is exceedingly important, 
because the relative rapidity of gains decreases, and the 
amount of food required to produce a pound of body 
weight rapidly increases, as the birth period is receded 
from, until at length a period is reached, after which fur- 
ther gains become impossible. Thus the age of infancy 
is not only the age of growth, but it is also the age of 
economic meat production. 

Early maturity, however, may reduce the constitutional 
vigor of the animal, thus defeating the object for which it 
was developed. In the main, when early maturity does 
affect the constitutional vigor, it is due to the undermin- 
ing influence of breeding from immature animals, as well 
as to the extreme artificial conditions which frequently 
attend such breeding. Thus, in order to avoid much 




DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 313 

of the adverse effect of early maturity upon the general 
vigor and thrift of the animal, we have but to refrain 
from using miniature animals in breeding. Further, ma- 
ture dams favor the rapid 
development of young in 
three important respects. 
In the first place, a mature 
dam usually provides a 
more bountiful supply of 
milk; second, as we have 
already observed, the 
larger the dam the larger 
the offspring at birth: ^"'- io4-hampshire sow 

A ^U-A ^1 1 .U W'^le belt 

and, third, the larger the 

birth weight the more rapid and economic gains the 

young will make, other conditions being equal. 

Inasmuch as the tendency to early maturity is hered- 
itary, the promising females should be tried out at as 
early an age as possible, even though this practice may 
operate slightly against the development of the first born. 
However, once a desirable female is found, she should 
be retained as long as she continues to do well in the 
breeding herd. 

As suggested, the young animals that are intended for 
meat production should be encouraged from birth. Early 
gains are the most economic. The young animal that is 
permitted to lose its body fat will not make as efficient 
a meat producer as it otherwise would had it been prop- 
erly encouraged from birth until ready for slaughter. 

Environment, development, selection and efficiency. — 
Among farm animals development is largely a matter 
of possibilities. Individual excellence of parents, as well 
as the purity of the heritage, count for little in the ab- 
sence of suitable environment. The modern breeds of 
farm animals have been evolved, in a large measure, by 
improved methods of care and management. Their 
superiority cannot assert itself in the absence of the 



314 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS 

accustomed environment. Therefore, to secure maximum 
development in farm animals, both young and old, the 
management must be as favorable as possible to advance 
all of the potentialities of 'the individual. 

Unless all of the possibilities within the individual have 
been properly developed, intelligent selection is not pos- 
sible. Some inferior animals will be retained for breed- 
ing and some superior individuals will be eliminated. 
Farm animals have been improved by continuous selec- 
tion as well as by better methods of care and manage- 
ment. To secure the maximum advantage of selection, 
therefore, the conditions must be such as to advance the 
possibilities that have been intensified through genera- 
tions of careful selection. 

The efficiency of the individuals in hand depends upon 
vigorous selection based on maximum development of all 
the potentialities with which the individual has been en- 
dowed. Further, selection under such conditions puri- 
fies the strain, family, or breed by the elimination of all 
individuals not possessing the desirable characters. 

Thus, the relation between the environment and de- 
velopment, the relation between the development and 
intelligent selection, as well as the relation between in- 
telligent selection and the general excellence of the in- 
dividuals in hand, must be clearly evident to the breeder 
of farm animals. For, in the main, the environment con- 
trols the development, the development directs selection, 
and selection governs individual efficiency and purifies 
the strains, families and breeds of our farm animals. 



APPENDIX 



315 



APPENDIX 

Breeds of farm animals. — For the benefit of the reader 
who may wish to obtain detail information concerning 
a particular breed, the following tabulation is arranged, 
giving the type, name of the breed, native home, size and 
common color for each breed ; as well as the name and 
address of the secretary in charge of the breeders' asso- 
ciation, who may be addressed for detailed information : 

Breeds of Light Type of Horses 



Name of 
breed 


Native 
home 


Height, hands; 
weight, pounds 


Color 


Secretary 


Address 


Arabian 


Arabia 


14 
800 


-14i 
-1,000 


Bay, white 


Henry K. Bush- 
Brown 


Newburg, N. Y. 


Thoroughbred 


England 


14 
800 


-16* 
-1,050 


Bay, brown. 


W. H. Rowe 


5th Ave. and 46th 
St., New York, 
N. Y. 


American 
Saddler 


United 
States 


15-1 
950 


^-15-2^ 
-1,050 


Bay, brown, 
black 


I. N. Ball 


Louisville, Ky. 


Standardbred 


United 
States 


15i 
900 


-ISf 
-1,150 


Bay, brown, 
black 


W. H. Knight 


355 Dearborn St., 
Chicago, 111. 


Orloff 
Trotter 


Russia 


151 
1,100 


-16J 
-1,300 


Gray, bay, 
black 






Morgan 


United 
States 


14f 
900 


-ISf 
-1,150 


Bay, chest- 
nut 


T. E. Boyce 


Middlebury, Vt. 



Breeds of Coach Type of Horses 



Name of 
breed 


Native 
home 


Height, 
hands; 
weight, 
pounds 


Color 


Secretary 


Address 


Hackney 


England 


15^-151 
1,000 -1,200 


Chestnut 


Gumey C. Gue 


308 W. 97th St., 
New York, N. Y. 


French 
Coach 


Prance 


15 -16 
1,200 -1,350 


Bay, brown, 
chestnut 


Duncan E. Willit 


Oak Park, III. 


German 
Coach 


Germany 


16 -16i 
1,350 -1,450 


Black, brown, 
chestnut 


J. Crouch 


Lafayette, Ind. 


Cleveland 
Bay 


England 


16 -16f 
1,200 -1,550 


Bay 


R. p. Stericker 


Oconomowoc, Wis. 



316 



appendix 
Breeds of Draft Type of Horses 



317 



Name of 
breed 


Native 
home 


Height, 
hands ; 
weight, 
pounds 


Color 


Secretary 


Address 


Percheron 


France 


15i -17 
1,800 -2,300 


Black, gray 


Wayne Dinsmore 


Union Stock Yards 
Chicago, 111. 


French 
Draft 


France 


15§ -17 
1,800 -2,300 


Black, gray 


C. E. Stubbs 


Fairfield, Iowa 


Clydesdale 


Scotland 


16 -16i 
1,800 -2,300 


Light bay 


R. B. Ogilvie 


Union Stock Yards 
Chicago, III. 


Shire 


England 


16 -17 
1,800 -2,300 


Light bay 


Charles Burgess 


Wenona, 111. 


Belgian 


Belgium 


16 -17 
1,600 -2,300 


Bay, black, 
brown 


J. D. Conner, Jr. 


Wabash, Ind. 


Suflfolk 


England 


16 -17 
1,600 -2,000 


Chestnut, 
bay 


Alex. Galbraith 


Janesville, Wis. 



Breeds of Ponies 



Name of 
breed 


Native 
home 


Height, 

inches; 
weight, 
pounds 


Color 


Secretary 


Address 


Shetland 


Shetland 
Islands 


34 - 44 
250 - 400 


Black, brown, 
piebald 


Miss Julia M. Wade 


Lafayette, Ind. 


Welsh 


Wales 


48 - 56 
400 - 600 


Brown, gray 


John Alexander 


Aurora, III. 


Exmoor 


Devonshire 


48 - 56 
500 - 800 


Bay, gray 






Arabian 


Arabia 


Under 56 
600 - 800 


Bay, white 


Henry K. Bush- 
Brown 


Newburg, N. Y 


Hackney 
Mexican* 


England 
Mexico 


Under 56 
600 - 800 

Under 56 
600 - 850 


Chestnut 
Duns, mixed 


Gurney C. Gue 


308 W. 97th St. 

New York, 

N. Y. 


Indian* 


Western United 
States 


Under 56 


Duns, bays, 
mixed 







*Not recognized a.s a breed. 



3i8 



APPENDIX 



Breeds of Jacks 



Name of 
breed 


Native 
home 


Height, 
hands; 


Color 


Secretary 


Address 


Andalusian 


Andalusia, 
Spain 


141 - 15^ 


Gray 






Maltese 
Catalonian 


Malta 

Islan-1s 
Catalonia, 

Spain 


14 - 14i 
14^ - 15i 


Brown, black 
Black brown 


C. F. Cook 


Lexington, Ky 


Majorca 


Majorca 
Islands 


15 - 16 


Black 






Italian 


Italy 


13 - 14 


Blue, black 






Poitou 


France 


141 - 15 


Black 







Major Breeds of Dairy Cattle 



Name of 
breed 


Native 
home 


Weight 


Color 


Secretary 


Address 


Jerseys 


Jersey 
Islands 


800 - 1,200 


Fawnlike 


R. M. Gow 


324 W. 23d St., 
New York, N. Y. 


Holstein- 
Friesian 


Holland 


1,400 - 2,000 


Black and white 


Fred L. Houghton 


Brattleboro, Vt. 


Guernseys 


Guernsey 
Islands 


1,000 - 1.500 


Yellow fawn 


Wm. H. Caldwell 


Peterboro, N. H 


Ayrshires 


Scotland 


1,000 - 1,400 


Red, white 


CM. Winslow 


Brandon, Vt. 



Minor Breeds of Dairy Cattle 



Name of 
breed 


Native 
home 


Weight 


Color 


Secretary 


Address 


Dutch 
Belted 

Brown 
Swiss 
French 
Canadian 
Kerry 


Holland 

Switzerland 
Canada 
Ireland 


1,100- 1,700 

1,200 - 1,600 
800- 1,000 
600 - 900 


Black, white 
belt 

Brown 

Black 

Black, red 


G. G. Gibbs 
Ira Inman 


Marksboro, N. J. 
Beloit, Wis. 



APPENDIX 



319 



Major Breeds of Beef Cattli 



Name of 
breed 


Native 
home • 


Weight 


Color 


Secretary 


Address 


Shorthorn 


England 


1,400 - 2,000 


Red, white 
roan 


John W. Groves 


Chicago, III. 


Hereford 


England 


1,400 - 2,000 


Red and white 


R. J. Kinzer 


Kansas City, Mo. 


Aberdeen 
Angus 


Scotland 


1,400- 1,800 


Black 


Chas. Gray 


17 Exchange Ave., 
Chicago, 111. 


Galloway 


Scotland 


1,200- 1,800 


Black 


Robt. W. Brown 


17 Exchange Ave., 
Chicasc 111. 



Minor Breeds of Beef Cattle 



Name of 
breed 


Native 
home 


Weight 


Color 


Secretary 


Address 


Polled 
Durham 


England 


1,400 - 2,000 


Red, white, 
roan 


J. M. Martz 


Greenville, Ohio 


Devon 


England 


1,200 - 1,800 


Red 


L. P. Sisson 


Newark, Ohio 


Red Polled 


England 


1,200 - 1,800 


Red 


H. A. Martin 


Gotham, Wis. 


Sussex 


England 


1,200 - 1,800 


Red 






West 
Highland 


Scotland 


900- 1,200 


Red, black 







Fine-Wool Breeds of Sheep 



Name of 
breed 


Native 
home 


Color 

of 
Points 


Weight, 


Secretary 


Address 


American 
Merino 

Delaine 
Merino 

Rambouillet 


United 
States 

United 
States 

France 


White 
White 
White 


100 - 1,S0 
100 - 150 
ISO - 185 


Wesley Bishop 
J. B. Johnson 
Dwight Lincoln 


Delaware, Ohio 

248 West Pike St.. 
Canonsburg, Pa. 

Milford Center, Ohio 



320 



APPENDIX 



Mutton Breeds of Sheep 



Name of 
breed 


Native 
home 


Color 

of 
Points 


Weight 


Secretary 


Address 


Southdown 


England 


Gray 


125 - 175 


Frank S. Springer 


Springfield, III. 


Shropshire 


England 


Dark 
brown 


155 - 225 


Miss Julia M. Wade 


Lafayette, Ind. 


Hampshire 


England 


Dark 
brown 


ISO - 250 


Comfort A. Tyler 


310 East Chicago St., 
Coldwater, Mich. 


Suffolk 
Down 


England 


Black 


ISO - 240 






Oxford 
Down 


England 


Brown 


200 - 325 


W. A. Shafor 


Hamilton, Ohio 


Dorset 


England 


White 


150 - 225 


Joseph E. Wing 


Mechanicsburg, Ohio 


Cheviot 


Scotland 
England 


White 


150 - 225 


F. E. Dawley 


Fayetteville, N. Y. 



Long wool breeds of sheep, see next page. 

Pure Lard Breeds of Swine 



Name of 
breed 


Native 
home 


Size 


Color 


Secretary 


Address 


Poland 
China 


United States 


Medium 


Black 


W.M.McFadden* 


Union Stock Yards, 
Chicago, 111. 


Berkshire 


England 


Medium 


Black 


Prank S. Springer 


510 E. Monroe St., 
Springfield, 111. 


Duroc- 


United States 


Medium 


Red 


J. R. Pfandert 


Peoria, 111. 


Jersey 
Chester 

White 
Hampshire 


United States 
America 


Large 

Medium 


White 
Black, belt 


J. C. Hiles 
E. C. Stone 


Cleveland, Ohio 
Armstrong, 111. 


Essex 


England 


Small 


Black 


F. M. Strout 


McLean, 111. 


Small 

Yorkshire 


England 


Small 


White 


Harry G. Krum 


White Bear Lake, 
Minn. 


Suffolk 


England 


Small 


White 







*A. M. Brown, Winchester, Ind. 
*G. F. Woodworth, Maryville, Mo. 
tT. P. Pearson, Thorntown, Ind. 



APPENDIX 



3^1 



Long-Wool Breeds of Sheep 



Name of 
breed 


Native 
home 


Color 

of 
Points 


Weight 


Secretary 


Address 


Leicester 


England 


White 


180 - 240 


A. J. Temple 


Cameron, 111. 


Cotswold 


England 


White, 
spotted 


200 - 265 


F. W Harding 


Waukesha, Wis. 


Lincoln 

Blackfaced 
Highland 


England 
Scotland 


White, 

mottled 
Black 


275 - 350 


Bert Smith 


Charlotte, Mich. 



Intermediate Breeds of Swine 



Name of 
breed 


Native 
home 


Size 


Color 


Secretary 


Address 


Cheshire 


United States 


Medium 


White 


Ed. S. Hill 


Freeville, N. Y. 


Victoria 


United States 


Medium 


White 






Middle 
Yorkshire 


England 


Medium 


White 







Pure-Bacon Breeds of Swine 



Name of 
breed 


Native 
home 


Size 


Color 


Secretary 


Address 


Large 

Yorkshire 

Tamworth 


England 
England 


Large 
Large 


White 
Red 


Harry G. Krum 
E. N. Ball 


White Bear Lake, 
Minn. 

Ann Arbor, Mich. 



Egg-Laying Breeds of Fowls 





Native home ' 


Number of 
varieties 


Weight, pounds 


Name of breed 


Male 


Female 


Leghorn 

Minorcas 

Andalusian 

Spanish 

Red Cap 

Hamburg 


Italy 

Minorca Islands 

Andalusia, Spain 

Soain 

England 

Holland 


8 
3 
1 
1 
1 
6 


8 - 9 
6 
8 
1\ 


61 - 7J 

5 

6 



6--^ 



APPENDIX 



Meat-Producing Breeds of Fowls 





Native home 


Number of 
varieties 


Weight, pounds 


Name of breed 


Male 


Female 


Brahma 

Cochin 

Langshan 


Asia 

China 

China 


2 
4 
2 


11 - 12 
11 
9i 


8i - 9i 



General-Purpose Breeds of Fowls 





Native home 


Number of 
varieties 


Weight, pounds 


Name of breed 


Male 


Female 


Plymouth Rock 

Wyandotte 

Java 

Dominique 

Rhode Island Red 

Orpington 

Dorking 

Houdan 


United States 
United States 
United States 
United States 
United States 
England 
England 
France 


6 

8 
2 
1 
2 
3 
3 
1 


9i 
8 5 
9.^ 

8 

81 

10 

7§-9 

7 


7| 
6| 
Th 
6 

61 

8 

6- 7 

6 



Gestation period for farm animals. — For ready refer- 
ence the following tabulation is arranged, giving the date 
of service and the date of parturition for the mare, cow, 
ewe and sow. This provides for a gestation period of 
340 days for the mare, 280 for the cow, 150 for the ewe 
and 112 days for the sow. The rows of figures between 
the lines give the date of service. Directly below is 
given a corresponding row of birth dates for each class 
of animal. Thus a mare bred on January i will be due 
to foal December 6 ; a cow bred February i will be due 
November 7 ; a ewe bred November i will be due March 
30; and a sow bred December i will be due March 22. 
Of course, these figures are only approximately correct, 
as the period of gestation is exceedingly variable (pp. 
279 and 280). 



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INDEX 



A 

Abdallah 195 

Aberdeen Angus cattle 319 

Abortion 268 

accidental 269 

age immunity 276 

avenue of infection 271 

avoid using infectious bulls.... 272 

carbolic acid for 271 

causes 269 

control 271 

infectious 270 

isolate infected cows 272 

kinds 268 

methylene blue for 271 

prevalence 268 

treatment 272 

use disinfectants freely 272 

Abnormality 82 

Accidental abortion 269 

Accumulative development 166 

in cattle 170 

in trotter 168 

Acquired character 66, 166 

Advanced register 198 

animals without registered par- 
ents 150 

bulls 147 

bulls, breeding 148 

cows, breeding 142 

established 141 

improvement 145 

number of cows 158 

record 130 

testing 226 

value of 132 

Afterbirth, retained 291 

A. & G. Netherland De Kol 216 

Age and individual merit Ill 

in selection Ill 

Allerton 133 

Alphea 121 

Alphea Czar 121 

American Merino sheep 319 

American saddle horse 316 

Andalusian jack 318 

Angus cattle 319 

Animals, costly 3 

decreasing 3 

distribution 5 

number 2 

propagation 9 

provide clothing 1 

provide food 1 

provide labor 1 

value 2 

Ancestors, comparative value 117 

Ancestral heredity 38 



Appleton & Company 43 

Arabian horse 316 

pony 317 

Artificial impregnation 261 

Asphyxia 298 

Associations, testing 224 

Atavism 40 

cause of variation 98 

Average deviation 85 

Ayrshire cow 318 

standard of performance 128 

B 

Bailey Racing Register 196 

Bakewell, Robert 188 

methods 190 

principles 189 

Banostine Belle De Kol 205 

Bear 280 

Beef-animal development 312 

Beef, cost of production 4 

Belgian horse 317 

Belle Korndyke 164 

performance 129 

Berkshire swine 320 

Beaver 280 

Biparous 281 

Blackfaced Highland sheep 321 

Bladder 11 

Blended inheritance 40 

Breed associations 199 

Breed characteristics, value of 110 

peculiarities 59 

prepotency 152 

Breeder, exceptional 62 

young 227 

Breeders' fancy points 70 

name, significance of 123 

Breeders of breeders 156 

of performers 156 

Breeding, animals, management 256 

capacity, measurement 132 

community 219 

complicated business 220 

cross breeding 179 

grading 178 

inbreeding 181 

line breeding 180 

pure-bred breeding 177 

systems 176 

test valuable 70 

Breeds 316 

formation of 185, 191 

history of 58 

improvement 196 

in selection 106 

origin 187 

poultry 32 1 



327 



328 



INDEX 



Page 

Brewer 31 

fundamental propositions 31 

British methods 200 

Broad ligaments 11 

Brown Swiss cow 318 

standard of performance 128 

Buffalo 280 

Building up a herd 207 

Bulls, advanced register 147 

improvement due to 216 

influence of 217 

Business of breeding 219 

Butter fat production increased. 171 

records, influence of 141 

C 

Calf, asphyxia 298 

castration 305 

development 311 

diarrhea 300 

feeding 307 

infectious diarrhea 301 

preparation for birth 285 

Calypso 115 

Canary birds 281 

Care a cause of variation 90 

of breeding animals 256 

Castle, W. E 16 

"Casting the wethers" 291 

Castration a cause of variation. ... 94 

of males 305 

Cat 280 

Catalonian jack 318 

Cattle, cost of production 4 

number 2 

prepotency 158 

prolificacy 242 

value 2 

causes of variations 95 

Cells 12 

centrosome 13 

chromatin 13 

chromosomes 15 

cytoplasm 13 

division 14 

division a cause of variation . . 99 

egg 11, 16 

germ. 15 

mitosis 14 

nucleus 13 

protoplasm 14 

sperm 12, 16 

spermatogenic 12 

Centrosome 13 

Character 65 

acquired 66 

congenital 66 

correlated 66 

defined 65 

dominant 42 

germinal 66 

limit in selection 68 

modifying 166 

recessive 42 

transferred 51 

unit of selection 65 

useful 67 



Page 

Chart of GHsta family 214 

Chemical agents a cause of variation 94 

Cheshire swine 321 

Chester White swine 320 

Cheviot sheep 320 

Chilled lamb 303 

Chromatin 13 

Chromosomes 14, 15 

combination 28, 96 

control of heredity 29 

in maturation 29 

reduction 18 

reduction a cause of variation 96 

theory 27 

theory of sex 233 

Cleveland bay horse. . 316 

Climate a cause of variation 89 

Clothing 1 

Clydesdale horse 317 

Coats 197 

Shorthorn Herd Book 197 

Colantha 4th's Johanna 205 

Color blindness 235 

Colt, asphyxia 298 

castration 305 

constipation 299 

development 310 

diarrhea 300 

feeding 307 

navel infection 300 

scrotal hernia 304 

umbilical hernia 303 

Community breeding 219 

advantages 220 

centers 223 

education features 226 

Conception 258, 260 

Congenital character 66 

Constitutional vigor in selection. .. Ill 

Comet 192 

Constipation 299 

Continuous variation 81 

Co-operative breeding 184 

Correlated characters 66 

Correns 42 

Cotswold sheep 321 

Cow, accumulative development. . . 170 

advanced register 151 

care of 282 

cow pox 295 

dairy, development 141 

difficult parturition 288 

economical usefulness 208 

estrum 258 

eversion of the uterus 291 

garget 294 

gestation 279 

gestation table 323 

inevitability of 207 

mammitis 296 

milk fever 293 

milk secretion altered 296 

pregnancy 158, 279 

prepotency 158 

prolificacy 242 

retained afterbirth 291 

with advanced register records 142 
with records as breeders 145 



INDEX 



329 



Page 

Cow pox 295 

treatment ■'^° 

Cow-testing associations 224 

Creation of new forms 49 

Crops 2 

Cross-breedmg -i '^ 

cause of variation ^o 

Cryptorchids defined 254 

Cystic degeneration 254 

Cytoplasm ^^ 



D 

Dairy cattle, accumulative develop- 
ment 170 

prepotency 158 

development 141 

economical usefulness 208 

inevitability of 207 

Dam, disease 288 

value of 63 

Darwin, Charles 21 

pangenesis 21 

De Kol 2d 164 

Delaine Merino sheep 319 

Delivering the young 287 

Development 7, 138, 174, 313 

a cause of variation 92 

accumulative 166 

of dairy cow 141 

of trotter 1^8 

of young 306 

Deviation, average 85 

Devon cattle 319 

de Vries 42 

Diarrhea 300 

infectious 301 

Dihybrids 46 

Disease of the dam 288 

of new-born 298 

of reproductive organs 254 

of young animals 298 

Disuse, a cause of variation 93 

Discontinuous variation 82 

Dog 280 

Domestication a necessity 185 

Dominant character 42 

Dorset sheep 320 

Drugs for sterility 255 

Ducks 281 

Duroc Jersey swine 320 

Dutch Belted cow 318 

Dutch Hengerveld De Kol 216 

Dysentery 301 

E 

Eari Korndyke De Kol 216 

Egg cells 11. 16 

when formed 30 

Eggs, cost of production 4 

Egg-producing hens, high 172 

Egg-production 135 

Elephant 280 

Embryo 262 

blastula stage 262 



Page 

Embryo, formation 262 

grastula stage 262 

morula stage 262 

mulberry stage 262 

Environment 6, 313 

and development 7, 138, 174 

Enzyme theory 27 

Equipment expense reduced 220 

Essex swine 320 

Estrum 258 

when appearing 258 

Eiwopa 121 

Evolution of farm animals 186 

Ewe, care of 282 

difficult parturition 288 

estrum 258 

gestation 280 

gestation table 323 

mammitis 296 

milk secretion altered 296 

pregnancy 280 

Excellence, standards of 58 

Exclusive inheritance 40 

Excitability 252 

Exmoor pony 317 

Exposure 7 

Extending improvement 204 

External causes of variation. . .87 to 94 
Eyes, sore 302 



F 

Fallopian tubes 10 

Family name, value of 122 

Famous grandsires 155 

Famous Holstein-Friesian cows.... 163 

Fancy points, value of 109 

Fashionable breeding 70 

Feeding young 307 

Females, disposal of 224 

organs 10 

reproductive organs, dilation of 256 

size of 252 

Fertility 60 

Fetal movements 278 

Fetus development 258, 263 

position 264 

size 265 

Fertility a cause of variation 99 

Fertilization 20 

cause of variation 97 

combinations of chromosomes . . 97 

influence on sex 233 

Fillies, breeding 240 

Foals, feeding 307 

preparation for 285 

Food 1 

and product 4 

supply a cause of variation... 91 

Formation of breeds 1H5 

new breeds 191 

Foundation animals 209 

Fowls, cost of production 4 

Fox 280 

Freemartins defined 253 

French Canadian cow 318 



330 



INDEX 



Page 

French coach horse 316 

French draft horse 317 

French Jockey club 202 

French methods 202 

Frequency curve 86 

Functional variation 80 

G 

Gage 94 

Galloway cattle 319 

Galton 32 

Galton's law of ancestral heredity 39 

Gamete 19 

Garget 294 

treatment 295 

Geese 281 

Gemmules 22 

George Wilkes as a breeder 154 

Germ cells 15 

hereditary bridge 25 

hereditary material 26 

Germ-plasm 22 

German coach horse 316 

Germinal character 66 

Germinal vesicle 16 

Gestation 277 

ewe 280 

duration of 278 

mare 279 

signs 277 

sow 280 

table 322 

Giraffe 280 

Glista Cora's record 213 

Glista Eglantine's record 213 

Glista Ernestine's record 213 

Glista Omicron's record 213 

Glista family 212 

chart 214 

Goat 280 

Grade animals, uses of 209 

Grading.... 178 

Great sires, breeding of 140 

Guernsey cow 318 

standard of performance 128 

Guinea 281 

H 

Hackney horse 316 

Hampshire sheep 320 

Hampshire swine 320 

Heifers breeding 210, 242 

development 311 

Hens, high egg-producing 172 

prolificacy 246 

Heredity 7, 21 

ancestral 38 

basis of control 30 

bridge 25 

carriers 28 

completed 26 

complex 32 

determiners of 21 

in animal breeding 31 

laws of 31 



Heredity, measurement of 132 

modifying characters 167 

prolificacy 246 

Hereditary material 26 

origin 30 

Hereford cattle 319 

Heritage in nuclei 2 7 

Herd, building up 207 

breeding up 212 

difficulties of improvement.... 213 

first generation 210 

Glista family 212 

Hermaphrodites defined 253 

Hernia, scrotal 304 

umbilical 303 

Heterozygous 49 

High- Lawn Hartog De Kol 205 

Hill 94 

History of the breeds 58 

Hog, see swine. 

Holstein-Friesian cattle origin 193 

centers 223 

cows 318 

scale of points 108 

yearly standard 128 

7-day standard 127 

Homozygous 49 

Horned Dorset sheep 320 

Horses, breeding the filly 240 

cost of production 4 

development. , 310 

estrum 258 

in productive industry 1 

number 2 

pregnancy 279 

prepotency 153 

prolificacy 240 

telegony 267 

value 2 

Hubback 192 

Human population 2 

Hybrids often sterile 253 

I 

Id 23 

Idleness and overfeeding 250 

Impregnation, artificial 261 

Improvement, basis of 74 

due to prepotency 152 

due to selection 137 

extended 204 

methods employed 174 

needed 203 

results accomplished 171 

a slow process 173 

takes time 213 

Improving farm animals 6 

Inbreeding 181 

Inbred pedigree 119 

Indian pony 317 

Individual merit in selection 102 

Individual prepotency 153 

Infectious abortion 270 

Inheritable variation 77 

Inheritance, blended 40 

exclusive 40 



INDEX 



331 



Page 

Inheritance, particulate 41 

sex limited 234 

Injuries a cause of variation 93 

Internal causes of variation. .95 to 101 

Intra-uterine influence 266 

Irritability 252 

Italian jack 318 

J 

Jersey cow 318 

standard of performance 128 

Jennet 280 

Johanna De Kol Von Beers 205 

"Joint ill" 300 

Judge, value of 102 

Jupiter 121 

E 

Kerry cow 318 

Kidney 11 

King of Pontlacs 115 

K. P. Pontiac Lass 205 

L 

Labor 1 

Lamb asphyxia 298 

breeding 244 

castration 305 

chilled 303 

development 312 

diarrhea 300 

feeding 307 

preparation for 285 

sore eyes 302 

sore mouth 302 

Large Yorkshire swine 321 

Law of ancestral heredity 38 

of heredity 31, 42 

Ledy 121 

Leicester sheep 321 

Leisering 11 

Ligaments, broad 10 

Lincoln sheep 321 

Line breeding 180 

Lion 280 

Live stock shows 199 

Locality a cause of variation 89 

Longevity 60 

cause of variation 99 

Lord Netherland De Kol 116 

performance 130 

M 

Macmillan Co 13 

Majorca jack 318 

Male, castration 305 

size of 252 

Malformation 82 

Maltese jack 318 

Management, a cause of variation 90 

of breeding animals 256 

Mating, suitability for 64 



Page 

Maturation 18 

cause of variation 95 

oogenesis 19 

spermatogenesis 19 

Mammitis 296 

treatment 296 

Mare, care of 282 

difficult parturition 288 

gestation table 323 

mammitis 296 

milk secretion altered 296 

pregnancy 279 

market facilities increased 222 

Mean 84 

Meat, producing 135 

Mendel, G. J 42 

Mendel's law, application 50 

creation of new forms 49 

dihybrids 46 

dominants 45 

gamete 43 

of heredity 42 

limitations 54 

monohybrids 42 

possibilities 52 

recessives 45 

reversion 53 

transferring characters 51 

zygote 44 

Mendelism a cause of variation.... 98 

Mendelian principles '. 48 

Mercury 121 

Merit in selection 102 

Metamorphosis 12 

Mexican pony 317 

Middle Yorkshire 321 

Milk, cost of production 4 

cisterns 12 

glands 12 

gland, number 12 

secretion altered 296 

Milk fever 293 

treatment 294 

Mitosis 14 

Mode 84 

Monohybrids 42 

Monstrosity 83 

Mouth, sore 302 

Morgan horse 316 

Multiparous 281 

Mutants 82 

Mutations 82 

Mutation a cause of variation 93 

N 

Navel infection 300 

Neck of womb 10 

Need of improvement 203 

Netherland Nemus 217 

New-born, disease 298 

New forms 47 

fixing 49 

Nick 64 

Non-inheritable variation 77 

Nonpariel Marquis 116 

Nucleus 13 



Z2>2 



INDEX 



O 

OflFspring, development 306 

disease 298 

high 37 

higher than parents 36 

lower than parents 36 

medium most frequent 36 

number at birth 281 

relative development 309 

similar to parents 34 

unlike parents 35 

Oogenesis 11 

Organs, Fallopian tubes 10 

female 10 

male 12 

OS uteri 10 

ovaries 10 

reproductive 10 

vagina 10 

uterus 10 

vulva 10 

Origin of breeds 187 

Orlofl horse 316 

Os uteri 10 

opening 256 

Ova 11 

Oviducts 10 

Ovulation 259 

Ovaries 10 

Overfeeding and idleness 250 

Overwork and adverse conditions.. 250 

Oxford sheep 193 

Oxford Down sheep 320 



P 

Pacer, accumulative development.. 168 

Pacing standard 127 

Pangenesis 21 

Parents influence young 306 

Particulate inheritance 40 

Parturition, difficult 288 

normal 286 

preparation for 285 

signs of 284 

wrong presentation 290 

Pea hen 281 

Pearson 38 

Pedigree 196 

Alphea Czar 121 

and performance 133 

and record of performance. ... 131 

Calypso 115 

Comet 192 

contents of 114 

form of 114 

inbred 119 

in selection 114 

King of Pontiacs 115 

Lord Netheriand De Kol 116 

Nonpariel Marquis 116 

origin 196 

Polonius 119 

showing value of ancestors .... 118 

tracing 115 

with exceptional animal 121 

writing 1 15, 1 16 



Page 

Percheron horse 317 

Performance 59 

and prepotency 161 

and selection 125 

and vigor 134 

Ayrshire 128 

breeding test 70 

Brown Swiss 128 

Guernsey 128 

Holstein-Friesian 127 

Jersey 128 

pacing standard 127 

record of 131 

standards of 125 

trotting staniard 126 

value of in selection 131 

Pick.W. M 197 

Picks Turf Register 197 

Pig, asphyxia 298 

castration 305 

constipation 299 

development 312 

diarrhea 300 

feeding 307 

preparation for 286 

scrotal hernia 304 

sore mouth 302 

thumps 203 

umbilical hernia 303 

Pigeons 281 

Plymouth Rock barring 235 

Poitou jack 318 

Poland China swine 320 

Polled Durham cattle 319 

Polonius 119 

Pontiac Belle De Kol 205 

Pontiac Clothilde De Kol 2d 205 

Pontiac Lady Korndyke 205 

Population, cow 2 

horse 2 

human 2 

poultry 2 

sheep 2 

swine 2 

Poultry, breeds of . . . 32 

cost of production 4 

number 2 

prolificacy 246 

value 2 

Pregnancy 277 

ass 280 

cat 280 

beaver 280 

buffalo 280 

ewe 280 

giraffe 280 

dog 280 

elephant 280 

lion 280 

mare 279 

signs 277 

squirrel 280 

rabbit 280 

sow 280 

wolf 280 

Pregnant animals, care of 282 

Premature birth 268 



INDEX 



333 



Prepotency 

and performers 

breed 

dairy cattle 

individual 

in horses 

in sex 

Presentation, normal 

Prince Ybma Spofford De Kol. 
Prolificacy 

cumulative effect 

desirable ._ 

factors influencing 

heredity 

in cattle 

in horses 

in poultry 

in sheep 

in swine 



Progression 

Propagation of farm animals 

Protoplasm 

Pure-bred animal, economic useful 
ness 

percentage of 

proportion of 

uses of 

breeding 

Purposes of breeding 



Page 
152 
161 
152 
158 
153 
153 
165 
286 
216 
237 
239 
238 
237 
246 
242 
240 
246 
243 
244 
37 
9 
14 

208 
124 
123 
20S 
177 
170 



Qualitative variation 79 

Quantitative variation 79 



Racing Register 196 

Rabbit 280 

Rambouillet sheep 319 

Rat 280 

Recessive character 42 

Records reduced 169 

Red Polled cattle 319 

Reduction of chromosomes 18 

Reproductive organs 10 

diseased 254 

female 10 

male 12 

Register, advanced 198 

Registration rules 197 

Regression 37 

Relative development 309 

Results accomplished 171 

Retained afterbirth 291 

Reversion 40 

and Mendelism 53 

cause of variation 98 

Rhea 121 

Ridglings defined 254 

Royal Agricultural Report 188 

Running records reduced 173 



Saturn 121 

Sarpendon 121 



Page 

Scrotal hernia 304 

Selection 8, 56,313 

and improvement 137 

basis of 74 

based on performance 69 

breeder a judge 102 

breed peculiarities 59 

complicated by fancy points . . 70 

exceptional breeder 62 

fashionable breeding 70 

fertility 60 

history of breeds 58 

large numbers important 61 

limit number of characters .... 68 

limit to useful characters 67 

longevity 60 

means of improvement 211 

nick 64 

object 56 

passing fads 73 

performance 125 

standards of 103 

standards of excellence 58 

suitability for mating 64 

uniformity in type 106 

unit of 65 

value of breeds 106 

value of breed characteristics. . 110 

value of dam 63 

value of fancy points 109 

value of merit 102 

value of pedigree 114 

value of record 131 

value of sire 63 

value of types 103 

value of vigor Ill 

vigor 60 

Sex, equality 229 

in breeding 229 

control not desirable 235 

Sex determination 229 

alternating ova 230 

age and vigor 231 

chromosome theory 233 

external 229 

female testicle 230 

fertilization on 233 

food supply 231 

internal 231 

male testicle 230 

sexual excitement 231 

time of breeding 230 

Sex differences slight 232 

Sex-limited inheritance 234 

Sex prepotency 165 

Sexual use, excessive 251 

Sheep, cost of production 4 

number 2 

prolificacy 243 

value 2 

Shetland pony 317 

Shire horse 317 

Shropshire sheep 320 

Shorthorn cattle 192, 319 

Show awards, value of 135 

Sir Beets De Kol 216 

Sire, influence 63, 217 



334 



INDEX 



Page 

Sire, value of 63 

great 139 

of breeders 159 

of performers 159 

Small Hopes Korndyke DeKol.... 217 

Small Yorkshire swine 320 

Southdown sheep 320 

Sow, care of 282 

difficult parturition 289 

estrum 258 

gestation 280 

gestation table 323 

mammitis 296 

pregnancy 280 

with secretion altered 296 

Sore eyes 302 

Sore mouth 302 

Sperm cells 12, 16 

when secreted 30 

Spermatogenesis 12 

Spermatozoa 12 

Sports 82 

Squirrel 280 

Standard of perfection in selection 

108, 125 

Holstein-Friesian 7-day 127 

Standards of performance 125 

pacing 127 

trotting 126 

Standardbred horse 194 

origin and descent 195 

Sterility 248 

causes 249 

excessive sexual use 251 

excitability 252 

hybrids 253 

idleness 250 

importance 248 

irritability 252 

overfeeding 250 

prevalence 248 

tirhidity 252 

use of drugs 255 

use of yeast solution 256 

Stock shows 199 

System of breeding 176 

co-operative breeling 184 

cross breeding 179 

breeding from best 183 

grading 178 

inbreeding 181 

Hie breeding 180 

pure bred breeding 177 

Suffolk Down sheep 320 

Suffolk horse 317 

Suffolk swine 320 

Sussex cattle 319 

Swine, cost of production 4 

number 2 

prolificacy 244 

value 2 

T 

Table of breeds 316 

Tamworth swine 321 

Telegony 267 



Page 

Testicles 12 

Testing associations 224 

Thoroughbred horse 192, 316 

Time records, influence of 138 

Timidity 252 

Thumps 303 

Tracing a pedigree 115 

Training, a cause of variation 92 

and developing. . . . 7, 138, 174, 313 

the trotter 310 

Transmitting capacity 132 

Triple-purpose cow 52 

Trotter, accumulative development 168 

development 138 

Trotting records reduced 169 

standard 126 

Turkey 281 

Type, deviation from 85 

finding 84 

mean 84 

mode 84 

uniformity in selection 106 

utility of in selection 105 

value of in selection 103 

U 

Udder. 11 

Umbilical hernia 303 

Uniformity favored 61, 221 

Uni parous 281 

Use a cause of variation 93 

Uterine influence 266 

telegony 267 

Uterus 10 

eversion 291 

inflammation 293 

V 

Vagina 10 

inflammation 293 

Valdessa Scott 2d 205 

Value of ancestors 117 

Variability 85 

Variation 74 

abnormality 82 

among heavy horses 78 

among light horses 75 

basis of improvement 74 

breeders control 95 

causes of 87 to 101 

continuous 81 

degrees of 81 

discontinuous 82 

finding type 84 

functional 80 

general 74 

inheritable 77 

in pattern 81 

malformation 84 

mean 82 

method of study 83 

mode 84 

monstrosity 83 

mutation 82 

non inheritable 77 



INDEX 



335 



Variation, nature of 76 

qualitative 79 

quantitative 79 

sport 82 

Victoria swine 321 

Vigor 60 

and performance 134 

in selection Ill 

von Tschermak 42 

Vulva 10 

W 

Weatherby 197 

Weatherby's General Stud Book. . . 197 

Weismann, A 21 

Weismann's germ plasm 22 

Welsh pony 317 

West Highland cattle 319 

"White scours" 301 

WilUams, Dr. W. L 272 



Page 

Wilson, James 51 

Wolf 280 

Womb 10 

neck of 10 

opening 256 

Wool producing 135 

Writing a pedigree 115 

Wrong presentation 290 

Y 

Yeast solution for sterility 256 

Yearly production for cows 205 

Young breeders 227 

delivering 287 

disease 298 

number at birth 281 

2 

Zygote 19 



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